Psychology Ch. 7-9

Concepts

category/ grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, and life experiences

• big ideas that are generated by combining details into cognitive structures and general understanding. 

Natural Concept

mental groupings created “naturally” through experiences

Artifitial Concept

concept defined by set characteristics or rules rather than by experiences.

Schema (schemata)

metal construct consisting of cluster/collection of related concepts

• difficult to change because they are automatic

Role schema

set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role

• Assumptions about how individuals may behave

Event schema/cognitive script

set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time (routine)

Prototypes

best representation/example of a concept

Lexicon

words of a given language

Grammar

set of rules used to convey meaning through use of lexicon

Phenome

unit of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word

Morpheme

smallest unit that carries meaning or a grammatical function

Semantics

process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

• how words, phrases, and sentences convey ideas, going beyond dictionary definitions to consider context, relationships between words, and how structure affects meaning

Syntax

manner by which words are organized into sentences

• rules governing how words, symbols, or code are arranged to form meaningful structures

Case Study: Genie

the effects of language deprivation during the critical period can be seen through this case

• girl grew up isolated w/o exposure to language, which hindered her ability to acquire normal speech and language skills.

Trial and error

Continue trying different solutions until the problem is solved

Algorithms

Step by step problem solving formula

• problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

Heuristic

General problem-solving framework

• mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem

Mental Set

continually using an old solution to a problem without results

• mental framework or pattern

  • makes you stick to familiar problem-solving strategies, even when they're not working or a better solution exists

Functional fixedness

inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended

• cognitive bias that makes people see objects only in terms of their traditional or intended uses, hindering creative problem-solving by preventing them from seeing alternative functions

Anchoring bias

faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution

• rely too heavily on the first piece of information they receive when making subsequent judgments or decisions, even if that initial information is arbitrary or irrelevant

Confirmation bias

tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories

• faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs

Hindsight bias

belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t

• perceive past events as having been more predictable than they actually were before the events occurred

Representative bias

assess the likelihood of an event or the characteristics of a person based on how closely they match a pre-existing mental prototype or stereotype, often ignoring actual statistical probabilities or relevant information

• faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgment

Stereotypical bias

an over-generalized, unconscious assumption or mental shortcut about a category of people based on race, gender, age, religion, or profession

Egocentrical bias

a cognitive tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective, overestimate one's personal contributions or importance, and project one's own beliefs onto others

Availability heuristic

a mental shortcut that causes you to judge the frequency, probability, or severity of an event based on how easily examples of it come to your mind

Standard deviation

measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean

• measures how spread-out scores are from the average in a dataset

Flynn Effect

observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation

Range of reaction

each person’s response to the environment is unique based on their genetic make-up

•  genes set the limits (boundaries) for a trait, while the environment determines where within those genetic limits a person's development will fall, influencing their final outcome (phenotype)

Dysgraphia

learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly

• learning disability affecting writing, causing issues with handwriting, spelling, and expressing thoughts on paper

Dyslexia

disability primarily affecting reading and spelling, stemming from how the brain processes language.

• common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain

Dyscalculia

learning disability that causes difficulty in learning or comprehending mathematics

• learning disability affecting a person's ability to understand and work with numbers

Encoding

input of information into the memory system

• labels/codes information about environment

• 2 types of processes

Semantic encoding

Most effective form of encoding. Attaching meaning to information makes it easier to recall later.

• Involves a deeper level of processing

• input of words and their meaning

Visual encoding

Words that create a mental image, such as car, dog and book (concrete words) are easier to recall than words such as level, truth and value (abstract words).

• input of images

Auditory Encoding

the process by which the brain converts physical sound waves into neural signals that can be processed, interpreted, and stored in memory

• input of sounds and their meanings

Sensory Memory

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes

• Stored for up to a couple of seconds.

• First step of processing stimuli from the environment.

• If the information is not important, it is discarded.

• If the information is valuable then it moves into our short-term memory.

Self-reference effect

tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

Automatic processing

encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words

• Usually done without conscious awareness

  • E.g. remembering WHEN you last studied.

Effortful Processing

encoding of information that takes effort and attention

• involves rehearsal and active engagement with the material, often leading to better retention.

  • E.g. WHAT you last studied, learning new skills

Short term memory

temporary storage system that holds information for brief periods, usually around 30 seconds, before it is either discarded or transferred to long-term memory.

• different forms: visual-spatial, episodic buffer, and phonological loop

Long Term Memory

continuous stage of information, unlimited

• 2 types: explicit and implicit

Explicit memory

memories we consciously try to remember and recall

• split into 2 parts: semantic and episodic memory

Semantic Memory

type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts

• knowledge about words, concepts and language

  • like knowing who the President is.

Episodic Memory

 type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory

• information about events we have personally experienced

  • includes time and place of the event - helps in recalling personal life experiences.

Implicit Memory

memories that are not part of our consciousness

Procedural Memory

type of implicit memory; stores information about how to do things

Priming

type of implicit memory; exposure to a stimulus (like a word or image) influences a person's response to a later, related stimulus without conscious awareness

Emotional Conditioning

type of implicit memory; unconsciously learned emotional responses to stimuli through classical conditioning, where feelings are triggered without conscious recollection of the original experience. 

Retrieval

act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness

• associated with the right frontal region.

Recall

accessing information without cues to retrieve previously learned information directly from memory

Recognition

identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue

Relearning

Learning information that you previously learned

Equipotentiality hypothesis

some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories

Learning strategies

the intentional methods, tools, and cognitive operations people use to absorb, process, and retain information

Amygdala

• Involved in fear and fear memories (memory storage is influenced by stress hormones).

• Processes emotional information important in encoding memories at a deeper level and memory consolidation.

Hippocampus

• Associated with explicit memory, recognition memory and spatial memory.

• Projects information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other memories.

• Involved in memory consolidation.

• Damage leads to an inability to process new declarative memories

Prefrontal Cortex

• Appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks.

• Encoding is associated with left frontal activity.

• Retrieval of information is associated with the right frontal region.

Cerebellum

• Plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano and classical conditioning.

• Damage prevents classical conditioning such as an eye-blink in response to a puff of air.

Neurotransmitters

critical for developing new memories. 

Repeated neuron activity → increased neurotransmitters in the synapse → stronger synaptic connections. (This is how memory consolidation occurs).

Flashbulb Memory

exceptionally clear recollection of an important event

• may depend on cultural reference and personal investment/involvement.  

Arousal Theory

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

• Strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters which strengthen memory

Eye Witness Testimony

Eyewitness identification and testimony is often used in the prosecution of criminals.

Research suggests that suggestive police identification procedures can lead to alterations in an eyewitnesses memory leading to misidentification.

Proactive Interference

old information hinders the recall of newly learned information

Retroactive Interference

information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information

Misinformation effect paradigm

after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event

• Elizabeth Loftus

False Memory syndrome

recall of false autobiographical memories

Amnesia

the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma.

Anterograde amnesia

inability to remember new information after point of trauma

Retrograde Amnesia

loss of memory (partial or complete) for events that occurred prior to the trauma.

Rehearsal

repetition of information to be remembered

• Moves information from short to long term memory.

Chunking

organizing information into manageable bits or chunks

Elaborative rehearsal

link information to other information/memories to make it more meaningful.

• thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory

Mnemonic Devices

memory aids that help us organize information for encoding

Distributed practice

a learning strategy that breaks study or training sessions into shorter, separate segments spread out over time, rather than cramming all at once

Physical Development

domain of lifespan development that examines growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness

Cognitive Development

domain of lifespan development that examines learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

Normative approach

study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones

Developmental Milestones

physical, social, emotional, cognitive, and communication skills that about 75% of children reach by a certain age

Continuous Theory

views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills.                   

Discontinuous theory

views development as occurring in unique stages (specific times or ages).    

Universal Course

studies show that children from all around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence.

Many Courses

Cultural differences in child care practices – different practices can accelerate or inhibit achievement of developmental milestones.

Nature

biology and genetics.

Nurture

environment and culture.

Freud Development

• Believed that childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults.

• Viewed development as discontinuous.

• Children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on 5 different areas of the body called erogenous zones

  • Believed lack of proper nurturance and parenting during a stage could lead to a child becoming stuck/fixated in that stage.

Erikson Development

• Social experiences shaped us, and development occurs across the lifespan.

• Failure to achieve competence at certain stages would lead us to “get stuck” or lead to the development of psychological crises. 

Piaget Development

focused on cognitive growth – and that it develops in specific stages (discontinuous). As we progress to a new stage, there are distinct shifts in how we think and reason. 

• believed children develop schemata (concepts used to categorize and interpret information) to help them understand the world.

  • When children learn new information they adjust their schemata through assimilation and accommodation.

• 
  

Kohlberg

proposed a theory of moral development consisting of three levels, each with two stages, highlighting how individuals progress from obedience to moral principles.

Secure Attachment

characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore

Avoidant Attachment

characterized by child’s unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves

Resistant Attachment

characterized by the child’s tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when they attempt to interact with the child

Disorganized Attachment

characterized by the child’s odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused

• This type combines behaviors from both avoidant and resistant styles, leading to confusion and fear.

Secure Base

parental presence that gives the infant/toddler a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings

Harlow’s monkeys

A series of experiments conducted by Harry Harlow that demonstrated the importance of caregiver attachment and social isolation in infant monkeys, highlighting the need for emotional support over mere physical sustenance.

• Results suggest that feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding.

Self-Concept

An individual's perception of their own identity and values, encompassing beliefs about personal attributes and roles.

Prenatal

The period before birth, encompassing the stages of development from conception to birth.

• Cognitive Development: Sensory responsiveness (sound, movement)

• Psychosocial Development: Once born, responds most to familiar voices that it heard in the womb. 

Infancy

• Physical Development: Motor Skills (Fine and Gross), Reflexes (Rooting, Grasping, Moro)

• Cognitive Development: Language skills (nodding, babbling, first words around 1 year, can tell the difference between sounds and language), basic understanding of physical properties, object permanence

• Psychosocial Development: Preferences for familiar voices and faces, development of attachment

Childhood

• Physical Development: steady growth, further refinement of motor skills

• Cognitive Development: Steady progress in cognitive development

  • Counting, naming colors, can make some decisions around age 3. 

• Psychosocial Development: Theory of Mind, Making simple decisions

Adolescence

• Physical Development: Puberty and growth spurts, continued pre-frontal cortex development

• Cognitive Development: Risk taking behavior, abstract reasoning

• Psychosocial Development: Cognitive Empathy. Pulling away from parents and spending more time with friend and social groups.