Introductory Psychology: Cognition, Development, Language, Motivation, and Emotion

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering mental representation, problem-solving, decision-making, developmental psychology, language acquisition, motivation, and emotion theories.

Category

A class of objects that belong together, helping individuals infer and prepare.

Basic-Level Category

The most commonly used, useful, and predictive category level.

Superordinate Category

A broad, general category level that is less descriptive.

Subordinate-Level Category

A highly specific category level beneath the basic level.

Prototype Theory

Categorizing objects by comparing them to an idealized, average category member.

Exemplar Theory

Categorizing objects by comparing them to stored, specific individual examples.

Family Resemblance View

The view that category members share core features, though no single feature is required of all.

Defining Features View

The view that category membership requires specific necessary traits, limited by fuzzy boundaries.

Well-Defined Problem

A problem with a clear starting state, defined goal, and obvious solution criteria.

Ill-Defined Problem

A problem with an unclear starting state, ambiguous goal, and uncertain solution criteria.

Algorithm

A systematic, step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb used to find workable solutions quickly.

Satisficing

Choosing an option that is "good enough" rather than optimal to save time and effort.

Means-End Analysis

Breaking a problem into sub-goals to reduce the gap between the current state and the goal.

Incubation

Pausing work on an unsolved problem to allow new insights or perspectives to emerge.

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to view an object solely in terms of its customary or typical function.

Fractionation

Breaking an object down into its basic physical traits to overcome functional fixedness.

Mental Set

The tendency to apply previously successful strategies to new problems where they do not work.

Insight

A sudden, non-systematic realization of a problem's solution (an "Aha!" moment).

Mood-Congruent Retrieval

The tendency to more easily recall memories that match one's current emotional state.

System 1 (Direct Route)

A fast, automatic, and low-effort mode of thinking and decision-making.

System 2 (Peripheral Route)

A slow, deliberate, effortful, and conscious mode of thinking and decision-making.

Framing Effects

Decision biases caused by whether options are presented in terms of gains or losses.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out supporting evidence while ignoring contradictory information.

Belief Persistence

Clinging to initial beliefs even after clear evidence disproves them.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the probability of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representativeness Heuristic

Estimating probability by comparing an event or person to an existing prototype or stereotype.

Conjunction Error

The mistake of assuming two events occurring together is more probable than either occurring alone.

Anchoring-and-Adjustment

A heuristic where numerical estimates are biased toward an initial starting value.

Nondisjunction

The failure of paired chromosomes (such as pair $21$) to separate properly during meiosis.

Germinal Period

The first $2$ weeks of prenatal development, from conception to uterine implantation.

Embryonic Period

The prenatal stage from weeks $2$ to $8$, featuring rapid cell differentiation and organ formation.

Fetal Period

The prenatal stage from week $9$ to birth, marked by major body and brain growth.

Teratogens

Environmental agents, such as alcohol or drugs, that cause damage during prenatal development.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome / Spectrum Disorder (FASD)

A condition from prenatal alcohol exposure marked by physical deformities and cognitive deficits.

Methylation

An enzymatic epigenetic process that activates or silences genes without altering DNA.

Contingent Reciprocity

Back-and-forth "serve and return" social interactions between an infant and caregiver.

Moro Reflex

An infant startle reflex causing arms, legs, and fingers to extend and the back to arch.

Darwinian Reflex

A primitive grasp reflex where stroking an infant's palm causes them to grip tightly.

Tonic Neck Reflex

The "fencer" reflex where turning an infant's head extends the limbs on that side.

Babinski Reflex

A reflex where stroking the sole of an infant's foot causes the toes to fan outward.

Cephalo-Caudal Trend

Top-down physical and motor development progressing from the head toward the feet.

Proximo-Distal Trend

Center-outward motor development progressing from the trunk toward the extremities.

Temperament

A biologically based, stable baseline of physiological and emotional reactivity.

Contact Comfort

The soothing physical sensation of warmth and softness that underpins infant attachment.

Strange Situation Test

A standardized observational test evaluating infant attachment via separations and reunions.

Schemata

Mental frameworks or concepts used to organize and interpret experiences.

Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing mental schemata without altering them.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemata or creating new ones to incorporate novel information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's stage from birth to age $2$, where thought is anchored in sensory and motor actions.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's stage from ages $2$ to $7$, marked by symbolic thought and egocentrism, but lacking conservation.

Conservation

The understanding that physical properties remain constant despite changes in appearance.

Egocentrism

The cognitive limitation of viewing the world exclusively from one's own perspective.

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that other people possess independent thoughts and beliefs.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's stage from ages $7$ to $11$, marked by logical thinking about tangible objects.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's stage from age $11$ onward, characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a learner can achieve alone versus with skilled guidance.

Kübler-Ross' 5 Stages of Grief

Five emotional stages of coping with loss: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

Phonemes

The smallest distinct units of sound in speech.

Morphemes

The smallest units of language that carry meaning, such as words and prefixes.

Syntax

The grammatical rules governing how words combine into phrases and sentences.

Telegraphic Speech

Early two-word utterances using content words without grammatical markers.

Overextension

Using a word too broadly to describe objects outside its actual meaning.

Underextension

Using a general word too narrowly to refer only to a specific single instance.

Motivation

The internal and external factors that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior.

Instinct

An unlearned, species-wide pattern of behavior triggered by a specific stimulus.

Drive

An internal psychological tension that arises from a biological need to restore homeostasis.

Homeostasis

The physiological process of maintaining a stable internal bodily state.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in an activity purely for its own sake and personal satisfaction.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A pyramid ranking human needs from basic biological survival up to self-actualization.

Ghrelin

A stomach hormone that stimulates appetite and signals hunger to the brain.

Leptin

A hormone released by fat cells that signals satiety and suppresses appetite.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The principle that performance improves with arousal up to an optimal point, after which it drops.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

The view that facial muscle contractions send signals to the brain that shape emotional feelings.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

The theory that bodily arousal occurs first and directly produces the experience of emotion.

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

The theory that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently.

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

The theory that emotion arises from physiological arousal paired with cognitive appraisal.