Systematic Theology Terms

Adoptionism

A view of Jesus Christ that sees him as a human who was chosen by God to be elevated into being God’s divine Son or a member of the Trinity.

Arianism

The teaching of a 4th-century theologian (c. 250–336) that Jesus is the highest created being but does not share the same substance as God the Father (Gr. heteroousios, “of a different substance”). It was declared heretical by the Council of Nicaea (325)

Chalcedonian Definition

Teachings about the person of Jesus Christ established by a Council in 451. It reaffirmed the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople and rejected the views of the Nestorians and Eutychians by asserting Jesus Christ as fully God and fully human.

Docetism

The belief that Jesus only seemed or appeared to have a human body and to be a human person. The view was found during the period of the early church among gnostics, who saw materiality as evil. It was condemned by Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35–c. 107).

Gnosticism

An amorphous movement during the early church period that featured complex views that focused on the quest for secret knowledge transmitted only to the “enlightened” and marked by the view that matter is evil. This movement denied the humanity of Jesus.

Immaculate conception of Mary

The view defined in the bull Ineffabilis Deus by Pope Pius IX (Dec. 8, 1854) that Mary, “at the very moment of her being conceived, received immunity from all stain of original sin, due to the merits of Jesus Christ the Savior of humanity.”

Logos

In Greek and Stoic philosophy, the universal power or mind that gave coherence to the universe. In Christian theology it refers to the second person of the Trinity, Jesus Christ (John 1:1), who as the creative power of God embodied truth and was God incarnate.

Lord

God. The supreme being to whom all allegiance, obedience, and worship is due. It is also used by Christians as a designation for Jesus Christ (Acts 11:17; Rom. 5:1; etc.) and as an expression of complete commitment to him.

Peccability

View that affirms the reality of Christ's temptation by asserting that it was possible for Christ to have sinned.

Preexistence of Christ

The theological affirmation that Jesus Christ as the second person of the Trinity has existed eternally and thus prior to his incarnate state as Jesus of Nazareth. It is affirmed in the Nicene Creed (325) and biblically in passages such as John 1:14; 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:15–17; Heb. 1:1–2.

Socinianism

The views and followers of a 16th-century theologian. His rationalistic theology denied the orthodox views of the person and work of Jesus Christ and other Christian doctrines. In America the movement was absorbed in Unitarianism

Son of Man

A Hebrew or Aramaic expression that may be a synonym for humankind (Ezek. 2:1; NRSV “mortal”) or refer to an apocalyptic figure who will judge the righteous and unrighteous at the end time (Dan. 7:13–14 KJV). It is also used as a title for Jesus (Mark 2:10; 8:38) in each sense.

Son of God

An individual who stands in a special relationship with God (Gal. 4:6–7). The concept is used in the OT for Israel as a nation (Exod. 4:22–23), David (2 Sam. 7:14), and kings (Ps. 2:7). In the NT, Jesus Christ is bears this relation to God in a unique way (Mark 1:11; John 11:27; 2 Cor. 1:19).

Subordinationism (of Jesus)

A theological term for the view that the nature and status of Jesus Christ is less than that of God the Father, or that the Holy Spirit is inferior to the Father and the Son. These positions were rejected by the Council of Constantinople (381). This kind of view appeared in Arianism and in writers such as Origen (c. 185–c. 254).

Theotokos

A term used in the ancient church for Mary as the “mother of God.” It was used at the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) to affirm the deity of Jesus Christ. Because Jesus had two natures, it was permissible to speak of Mary as “God-bearer,” since the human Jesus was also the divine Jesus.

Virginal conception of Jesus

The belief that Jesus was conceived by the Virgin Mary by the power of the Holy Spirit without a human father involved in conception (Matt. 1; Luke 1–2).

Nestorianism

Followers of a 5th century theologian (d. 451), who taught in effect that Jesus Christ was two separate persons as well as possessing two natures. This view was declared heretical by the Council of Ephesus (431).

penal-substitution

A view of the atonement that stresses Christ’s death as a perfect payment for the penalty of human sin that is accepted by God, whose wrath and judgment are satisfied by this work of Christ, who took the sinner’s place. It has been influential in Protestantism and evangelicalism.

christus victor

A term for the view that in his death and resurrection Jesus defeated the powers of sin and evil, winning a cosmic victory over these enemies. Associated particularly with early church views of the atonement.

homoousious

“Of the same substance.” Used in early church christological debates and adopted by church councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381) to indicate that Jesus Christ was of the same essence as God the Father.

homoiousious

“Of like substance” was a term used in early christological debates by Arians and others who perceived Jesus Christ as “like” God the Father, but not as being of the “same” substance as God the Father.

propitiation

A theological term for making atonement for sin by making an acceptable sacrifice. Some English translations use the term (e.g., KJV and ASV in Rom. 3:25; 1 John 2:2; 4:10; ASV in Heb. 2:17) to describe the death of Christ. Some theories of the atonement relate this to God’s wrath.

kenoticism

The view of some 18th- and 19th-century theologians, who came to the christological view that the incarnation was possible because the eternal Logos (Jesus Christ) “emptied” or divested himself (Phil. 2:7) of divine attributes that cannot be expressed as a human being: omnipotence, omniscience, etc.

moral influence

The view that the death of Jesus Christ on the cross was the supreme example of God’s love, and that by recognizing this, persons will respond to salvation and be moved to live lives of love toward God and other people. It is associated with Peter Abelard (1079–1142).

expiation

Literally, “to seek, appease, or purify through a sacred rite.” Release from sin as well as the means by which this release is accomplished. The RSV thus translates Gr. hilastērion and hilasmos in relation to the work of Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:25; 1 John 2:2; 4:10).

wrath of God

An expression of the righteousness of God in relation to human sin and its just punishment (Rom. 1:18; 2:5; Eph. 5:6; Col. 3:6). Also called “anger” in the Scriptures (Exod. 4:14; Deut. 29:23).

incarnation

The doctrine that the eternal second person of the Trinity became a human being and “assumed flesh” in Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus Christ was the “Word made flesh” (John 1:14). The doctrine holds that Jesus was one divine person with both a divine and a human nature.

ransom theory

The view that Jesus Christ procured salvation by shedding his blood as a payment to Satan to deliver humanity from bondage to evil. It is associated with the thought of Origen (c. 185–c. 254).

eutychianism

The teaching of a 4th/5th century theologian (c. 375–454) that Jesus had only one nature.

hypostatic union

In theology, the union of the two natures, divine and human, in the one person Jesus Christ. It was defined at the Council of Chalcedon (451) to affirm the personal unity as well as the two natures. This reality is a divine mystery.

apollinarianism

The view of a 4th century theologian (c. 310–c. 390) that Christ did not assume full human nature but that in the incarnation the divine Logos took the place of the human soul or psyche. It sought to maintain the unity of the person of Jesus Christ as the one incarnate nature of the divine Logos.

governmental theory

A view of the death of Jesus Christ, associated with Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), in which Jesus Christ underwent exemplary, undeserved suffering to show humanity God’s displeasure with sin

communicatio idiomatum

Literally, the “interchange of the properties.” A way to express the view that the attributes of the divine and human natures of Jesus Christ are attributes of the one person and that what can be said of Christ’s divinity can be said of his humanity, and vice versa.

theologia crucis

A term of Martin Luther’s (1483–1546) that he contrasted with a “theology of glory,” pointing out that God’s revelation is known in the weakness and scandal of the cross of Jesus Christ and not through speculative reason and human reason.

unlimited atonement

The belief that the death of Jesus Christ on the cross was intended to provide salvation for the whole world whether or not all persons have faith in Christ.

ascension

The departure of Jesus from earth to heaven, marking the end of his postresurrection appearances to his disciples (Acts 1:3, 9).

imputation

To ascribe in the sense of reckoning. The concept relates to sin, guilt, or righteousness, as when Paul indicates that through Adam’s sin, death and guilt are imputed to all (Rom. 5:12–14), while through Christ’s work, righteousness is “reckoned” to those who believe (Rom. 4:22–24; 5:15–21).

humiliation

Theological term to describe the earthly life, suffering, death, and burial of Jesus Christ (Phil. 2:5–8). Some include the “descent into hell,” mentioned in the Apostles’ Creed, as part of this state. It stands in contrast to his exaltation (Phil. 2:9–11).

assumption

The Roman Catholic dogma promulgated by Pope Pius XII (1950) that the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus, did not die but ascended in body and soul to heaven.

descent into hell

Statement from the Apostles’ Creed referring to the belief that, in some sense, Jesus went to the realm of the dead (Hades, Sheol) prior to his resurrection (1 Pet. 3:19). Interpretations emphasize Christ’s victory, or agony, or preaching to the dead.

munus triplex

The mediatorial work of Jesus Christ expressed in his threefold office of prophet, priest, and king. These were used by John Calvin (1509–64) and later Reformed theologians as links between the work of Christ and the covenant history of Israel.

recapitulation

(Gr. anakephalaiōsis, “summing up”) A view of early Christian theologians, particularly Irenaeus (c. 130–c. 200), that God “sums up all things in Christ” (Eph. 1:10) as the second Adam who restores the sinful creation by redeeming from all the sin done in Adam.

atonement

The death of Jesus Christ on the cross, which effects salvation as the reestablishment of the relationship between God and sinners.

exaltation

Theological term for the resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ to God the Father and his continuing kingly rule (Acts 2:33; Phil. 2:9; Heb. 7:26).

limited atonement

A concept, found in Calvinist theology, maintaining that Christ died only for the elect, who are the only recipients of salvation. Also called “particular redemption.” It was one of the five canons of the Calvinistic Synod of Dort and part of TULIP.

session

The ongoing work of Christ, who is seated at “the right hand of God” (Mark 16:19; Acts 2:33; Rom. 8:34; Eph. 1:20–23; Col. 3:1). It expresses the highest exaltation of Christ. Lutherans and Reformed theologians differed over the implications of this for Christology and especially in regard to the theology of the Lord’s Supper.

sacrifice

Something of value offered as an act of worship or devotion to God. These were offered throughout the OT (Gen. 4:3–5; 8:20–22), accompanied covenant making (Exod. 24:3–8), and were of various types.

resurrection

God’s raising of Jesus Christ from the dead (Acts 2:32; 4:10; Gal. 1:1). Also the future raising of all persons prior to the final judgment (John 5:25–29; 1 Cor. 15; Rev. 20:4–15).

In Christ

A term often used by Paul to indicate the Christian believer’s union with Jesus Christ and the benefits this brings for salvation.

Repentance

The act of expressing contrition and penitence for sin. Its linguistic roots point to its theological meaning of a change of mind and life direction as a beginning step of expressing Christian faith.

Merit

The worth or value of an act of obedience and, in an extended sense, that which a person who performs the act deserves. Theologically, the Protestant Reformers rejected the view that any human acts have such value before God.

Bondage of the will

The view that because of human sinfulness, the human will is constrained to act according to its sinful nature and is therefore captive to it, unable to choose to do anything good apart from its liberation by the Holy Spirit.

Forensic act

A legal act or declaration, used in relation to “righteousness” and “justification” in Protestant theology. It indicates that God “declares” a sinner righteous or justified (not “makes” one righteous) through Jesus Christ.

Regeneration

The action of the Holy Spirit in transforming the lives of those given the gift of faith so they experience a “new birth” and salvation through Jesus Christ.

Total Depravity

A theological term to indicate the state of sinfulness or wickedness in which humans apart from God exist and which is characteristic of the human state after the fall. Especially the view that sinfulness pervades all areas of life and human existence.

Special grace

The favor of God given specifically to the elect, to those whom God will save.

Righteousness

he right standing of Jesus Christ given by God to the sinner in justification. The sinner receives, by grace, a right standing that is not earned or merited and which belongs to “another”—Jesus Christ.

Grace

Unmerited favor, extended to sinful humanity in providing salvation and forgiveness through Jesus Christ that is not deserved, and withholding the judgment that is deserved.

Justification

“A reckoning or counting as righteous”. God’s declaring a sinful person to have a right standing before God on the basis of the righteousness of Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:24–26; 4:25; 5:16–21). The result is God’s peace (Rom. 5:1), God’s Spirit (8:4), and thus “salvation.”

Adoption

Reception of a sinner into the familial relationship of a child to God as parent through Jesus Christ by the work of the Holy Spirit.

Penance

The action of showing sorrow and remorse for sin. It is one of the seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church (also called “sacrament of reconciliation”), and the prescribed way for postbaptismal sins to be forgiven. Its elements are contrition, confession of sin, and “doing” of acts of contrition.

Union with Christ

Believers’ connection to Jesus Christ on the basis of faith by the power of the Holy Spirit.

Common Grace

God’s universal, nonsaving favor in which blessings are given to humanity for physical sustenance, pleasure, learning, beauty, etc., as expressions of God’s goodness.

ordo salutis

A term found particularly in Calvinistic theology to indicate the temporal order of the process of the salvation of the sinner according to the work of God. Elements include calling, regeneration, adoption, conversion, faith, justification, etc.