Intercultural Communication Chapter 2

[Perception] Define perception.

Awareness.

[Perception] What is a threshold in perception?

It helps us recognize that we have moved from one place or state into another.

[Perception] Absolute threshold?

The minimum amount of energy a stimulus must emit for a person to detect it.

[Perception] Sense threshold?

A very low level of perception through touch, taste, smell, hearing, or sight.

[Perception] Threshold of awareness?

Recognition that something exists in the environment.

[Perception] What three major features affect the perceptual process?

Perceptions are selective, biased, and categorized.

[Perception] What does it mean that perceptions are selective?

People notice and attend to some information rather than all available information.

[Perception] What does it mean that perceptions are biased?

They are shaped by social, unique, and cultural identity and can be manipulated.

[Perception] What does it mean that perceptions are categorized?

They sort information into groups, helping us avoid being overwhelmed and recognize patterns.

[Perception] What are the three steps in perception checking?

Description; confirm/interpret using another source; verify.

[Perception] Why can perceptions be skewed?

Because perception is selective, biased, and categorized; checking is needed to reduce error.

[Attribution] Define attribution.

Explanation.

[Attribution] What is an attribution error?

A mistaken explanation of behavior, events, or outcomes.

[Attribution] Egocentric bias?

Comparing another person's behavior with what you believe you would do; for example, “I would never do that.”

[Attribution] Fundamental attribution error in a negative context?

Overestimating personal characteristics as the cause.

[Attribution] Fundamental attribution error in a positive context?

Overestimating situational factors as the cause.

[Attribution] Ego-protective attribution for one's own failure?

Excusing the failure by blaming the situation.

[Attribution] Ego-protective attribution for one's own success?

Justifying success by crediting personal characteristics.

[Attribution] Premature closure?

Stopping the search for explanations too soon.

[Attribution] Principle of negativity?

Tending to be more negative toward strangers.

[Attribution] Ultimate attribution error?

A systematic pattern of misattributions formed by prejudice.

[Cognition] Define cognition.

Processing.

[Cognition chart] In Nisbett's comparison, West is represented by what place?

Greece.

[Cognition chart] In Nisbett's comparison, East is represented by what place?

China.

[Cognition chart] West/Greece ecology?

Mountains and sea.

[Cognition chart] East/China ecology?

Fertile plains.

[Cognition chart] West/Greece economy?

Commercial.

[Cognition chart] East/China economy?

Agriculture.

[Cognition chart] West/Greece social structure?

Independence.

[Cognition chart] East/China social structure?

Peasants cooperating; elders coordinating.

[Cognition chart] West/Greece attention?

Details; predict; control.

[Cognition chart] East/China attention?

Relationships.

[Cognition chart] West/Greece knowledge?

Rules.

[Cognition chart] East/China knowledge?

Interrelated connections.

[Cognition chart] West/Greece cognition?

Logic; detail-oriented.

[Cognition chart] East/China cognition?

Dialectics; harmony.

[Cognition] In the notes, what was one attribution for Bill Gates's success?

His mother.

[Cognition] What rule is connected to the Beatles' success in the notes?

The 10,000-hour rule.

[Cognition] In an individualistic culture, success is usually attributed to what?

Internal qualities.

[Cognition] In an individualistic culture, failure is usually attributed to what?

External factors.

[Cognition] How are success and failure attributions described for collectivist cultures?

The individualistic pattern is flipped.

[Language meaning] Denotative meaning?

A fixed and stable relationship between a symbol and its referent.

[Language meaning] Connotative meaning?

Evaluative or emotional meaning.

[Language meaning] Contextual meaning?

Meaning understood within a framework.

[Language meaning] What are the two contexts listed for contextual meaning?

Linguistic context and nonlinguistic context.

[Language meaning] Figurative meaning?

Nonliteral, artistic meaning.

[Language meaning] Idiom?

A traditional way of saying something, based in literature, arts, or culture.

[Language & perception] Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

The language a person speaks shapes or controls how that person perceives and understands the world.

[Language & perception] Linguistic relativity?

Language affects perception: it influences but does not determine it.

[Language & perception] Linguistic determinism?

Language strictly determines and limits what a person can think.

[Language & perception] What is the stated effect of linguistic determinism?

If a language lacks a word or grammatical structure for a concept, its speakers cannot comprehend or think about that concept.

[Communication accommodation] What is communication accommodation?

Communication between two people in which their communication overlaps similarly.

[Communication accommodation] Speech divergence?

Focusing on differences in speech.

[Communication accommodation] Speech convergence?

Adopting the other person's speech.

[Communication accommodation] Code switching?

Combining or merging language groups.

[Code switching] One reason to code switch: accommodation?

To accommodate the other speaker.

[Code switching] One reason to code switch: language richness?

To employ the richness of the other language.

[Code switching] One reason to code switch: topic?

Because it relates to the topic of conversation.

[Code switching] One reason to code switch: belonging?

To show warmth and identification with a group.

[Code switching] One reason to code switch: membership?

To determine whether someone is an in-group member.

[Code switching] One reason to code switch: society?

To fit the multilingual nature of society.

[Communication accommodation] Ethnolinguistic variation?

How the language we speak affects the way others judge us.

[Communication accommodation] Ethnolinguistic vitality?

The degree of prestige, acceptability, and importance attributed to a language.

[Communication accommodation] Ethnolinguistic identity?

How the language we speak affects how we define ourselves.

[Culture & language] List the six cultural-language topics named in the notes.

Cultural conceptions about language; direct vs. indirect communication; elaborated vs. understated styles; topic management/turn-taking; persuasive styles; verbal communication styles.

[Microcultures] Dialect?

A regional or social variety of language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary.

[Microcultures] Argot?

An extremely specialized language of a microculture; the notes associate it with the “language of misery,” including underclass groups such as prisoners or homeless people.

[Microcultures] Jargon?

Professional, efficient shorthand used by people with a similar interest to communicate ideas and concepts.

[Microcultures] Slang?

Informal vocabulary made of invented words, arbitrarily changed words, or extravagant language.

[Nonverbal] About what percentage of communication can be nonverbal?

Up to 65%.

[Nonverbal] Who wrote The Hidden Dimension of Culture?

Edward T. Hall.

[Nonverbal] List Hall's nine areas of nonverbal communication in these notes.

Haptics; gestures; proxemics; facial expressions; paralinguistics; body language; appearance; eye contact; artifacts.

[Nonverbal characteristics] What does it mean that nonverbal cues are discrete?

They can be separated and identified.

[Nonverbal characteristics] What does it mean that nonverbal cues are arbitrary?

Their meaning comes from agreement among the people who use and decode them.

[Nonverbal characteristics] Why is nonverbal communication difficult to use for displacement?

It does not do well with abstractions.

[Nonverbal characteristics] Are nonverbal cues or verbal cues relied on more?

Nonverbal cues are relied on more.

[Nonverbal functions] How can nonverbal communication repeat a verbal message?

It reinforces the same verbal meaning.

[Nonverbal functions] How can nonverbal communication contradict a verbal message?

It conflicts with the words; sarcasm is the example.

[Nonverbal functions] How can nonverbal communication substitute for a verbal message?

It replaces words entirely.

[Nonverbal functions] How can nonverbal communication complement a verbal message?

It adds to or completes the verbal message.

[Nonverbal functions] How can nonverbal communication accent a verbal message?

It emphasizes one part of the spoken message.

[Nonverbal functions] How can nonverbal communication regulate conversation?

It controls the flow of conversation.

[Nonverbal diversity] Universal nonverbal cues?

Gestures that any cultural group could identify.

[Nonverbal diversity] What does “culture-bound” mean for nonverbal communication?

A culture has assigned a cue its meaning; this is the most common layer in the notes.

[Kinesics] Kinesics?

The nonverbal language of body movement.

[Gestures] Emblems?

Gestures that are equivalent to words; example: using a hand gesture to say “stop.”

[Gestures] Illustrators?

Gestures that describe or draw a picture; examples: indicating thirsty or hungry.

[Gestures] Affect displays?

Gestures that express emotion; examples include nervous fidgeting.

[Gestures] Regulators?

Gestures that control interaction; examples: beckoning someone to come closer or flicking a hand to send someone away.

[Gestures] Adaptors?

Unintentional body movements in response to boredom or stress; examples: scratching the head, flicking hair, shifting position.

[Posture] Posture?

How the body is positioned.

[Posture] Approach posture?

Leaning forward.

[Posture] Withdrawal posture?

Drawing back or turning away.

[Posture] Contraction posture?

A posture associated with depression or dejection.

[Posture] Expansion posture?

A posture associated with being proud, arrogant, or conceited.

[Posture] Inclusive posture?

Positioning the body to include some people and exclude others.

[Posture] Interpersonal posture?

Whether body position is parallel or focused on the other person.

[Posture] Reflective posture?

Body position mirrors the person opposite.

[Facial expression] What six facial emotions seemed to be universally recognized?

Anger; sadness; happiness; surprise; fear; disgust.

[Facial expression] Display rules?

Cultural rules about how comfortable people are displaying emotions.