M&E Chp. 1 + 2

Motivation

the processes that start, guide, and maintain behavior

Stimulus

any object or event that registers on the senses (at the level of sensation not perception)

• stimuli prompt behaviors

• they can be external (reward) or internal (hunger)

Psychological inertia

the tendency for a person to contimue their current state until a stimulus disrupts that state; the stimulus has to be strong enough to disrupt a person’s current state to the point where it changes

• inertia = lack of change in behavior

Motive

an initiator of a motivational process

arousal

energy mobilization in order to cope with situational demands

Emotion

a subjective feeling state, the subjective experience of arousal

Mood

a persistent subjective feeling no tied to a stimulus

Affect

a subjective feeling associated with a particular stimulus

Cognition

mental activity associated with obtaining, converting, and using knowledge; it requires a person to engage with a stimulus on purpose

Hot vs cold cognition

Hot = reaction-based nonconscious use of knowledge

Cold = use of knowledge in a more planned, analytic manner

Cognitive representation

the use of mental images to symbolize things that are not present to our senses

Need

a condition that must be met in order to maintain life or to nurture well-being

Want

something that is desired by the person but is not necessary for them to maintain their current state or nurture improvement

Physiological needs

biological requirements for human survival

Psychological needs

requirements for personal growth (nurturing our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors)

• it must be essential to our well-being

Drive

the energization of behavior towards satisfying a need

Psychological drive

the energization of behavior based on the interpretation of a need

Deficiency need

a deprivation of a biological or psychological necessity; this deprivation creates a negative internal state to resolve what is lacking

Thrival

to grow vigorously

Well-being

the presence of psychological need satisfaction; well-being exists when someone experiences positive emotionality, a sense of purpose, and satisfaction with one’s life

Ill-being

the absence of psychological need satisfaction and the presence of blocks to one’s needs

Growth need

an opportunity for acquisition of psychological improvement; this opportunity activates positive emotion to obtain a possibility

Operational definition

assigned meaning of a term in a study

Quasi-experiment

use of existing categories, lacks control over the independent variable

Archival study

using existing records as data for hypothesis testing

How are motivational processes measured

internal processes are inferred through external expressions such as:

• Behaviors like effort, persistence, choice, action probability, facial movement, body movement

• Engagement with a task

• Psychophysiology

• Brain activation

• Self-report (interviews, Likert scale)

How do motivation and emotion benefit us

They benefit our adaptation and functioning; they also direct our attention

Implicit process

an automatic, non-conscious feeling of behavior

explicit process

a deliberate, conscious thought or behavior

Intrinsic motivation

behavior that arises from a desire to seek novelty, challenge, or growth; behaviors that are not required of us or not encouraged by social forces

Extrinsic motivation

behavior that is due to environmental incentives or consequences; behavior prompted by others

Avoidance motivation

behavior energized or directed towards averting an encounter with negative stimuli

Approach motivation

behavior energized or directed towards gaining something positive

Mind/body dualism

argues that mental processes and the physical body exist as separate entities

Who created the first psychology laboratory and what did he practice

Wilhelm Wundt; he practiced introspection, the examination of one’s own conscious activities

Structuralism

attempts to find basic units of the mind; doing so required attempts to link different inner experiences like feelings or sensations, which was attempted through introspection at the time

Functionalism

the study of the purpose and role of the human mind

Behaviorism

the study of observable human behavior

Psychoanalytic theory

suggests that behavior and personality are shaped by unconscious conflicts among components of the self

Humanistic psychology

a school of thought which suggests that human nature is largely positive and human direction is towards personal growth

Cognitive perspective

examines mental activities that direct behavior; emerged in the 1960s

Timeline of psychology

1880s Wundt creates first psychology lab

1890s James publishes Principles of Psych, Functionalism

1910s Behaviorism

1920s Psychoanalytic theory

1930s Radical behaviorism

1940s Humanistic psychology

1950s Motivation research moves away from behaviorism towards needs

1960s Cognitive psychology emerges

1980s Computer technology allows for studies of reaction time

1990s Brain imaging technology emerges

Tripartite view of the soul

At the bottom is appetite drive to satisfy biological experiences like hunger and/or sex

In the middle was competitive drive to meet social standards

The highest level was a calculating drive to meet decision making needs

British philosophy perspectives

Aristotle suggested will is uniquely human

Descartes argued that will initiates and directs action

John Stuart Mill stated that circumstances or events external to the person determined their ultimate character, and that immediate circumstances influence behavior in a given situation

Hedonism

the belief that pleasure is the highest form of good that humans can achieve

Psychological hedonism

suggests that all human actions are determined by the pursuit of pleaure and the avoidance of pain

What were the 3 underpinnings to the psychological study of motivation provided by philosophy

1) Different levels of drive

2) Free will vs instinct

3) Pursuing pleasure vs avoiding pain

Instinct

an innate reaction to an external stimulus that is not the result of learning

• Darwin suggested all human motivation is instinct driven

James perspective of two instincts

There are physical instincts that are biologically based and mental instincts that are psychologically based

How did McDougall describe mental instincts

a tendency to orient towards particular stimuli and respond to them for the purpose of attaining a goal

The 2 issues with instinct theories

1) describing the range of human instincts requires a huge list of instincts

2) instinct theories are tautological (they use the outcome to determine the process, resulting in circular logic)

Drive theory

a need energizes behavior that reduces a need

Freud’s drive theory and its components

the purpose of a behavior is to satisfy a biological need

• Biological urges produce energy buildups

• Energy buildups happen in the nervous system

• The nervous system wants consistently low energy

• Energy buildups create psychological discomfort in the nervous system

• If energy buildup is not reduced it threatens physical and psychological health

• Drive is a psychological warning system in action

Homeostasis is maintained until…

1) Deficit creates urge (source)

2) Urge creates anxiety (impetus)

3) Anxiety creates behavior (object)

4) Behavior creates satisfaction (aim)

Hull’s drive theory

drive is pooled energy from all deficits; drive energized but did not guide behavior; instead it was habit that guided behavior; Hull would update his guide to include incentive

Incentive

an external stimulus that energizes and directs behavior

3 points of drive theory

• Drive is a state of tension that emerges from biological need

• Because drive is unpleasant, it energizes behavior

• Reducing drive is reinforcing and makes the behavior more likely in the future

What are the 3 issues with drive theory

Motivation often occurs without biological need

The environment can energize behavior without internal tension

Learning can occur without drive reduction

Arousal

a state of alertness and activation

Arousal theory

suggests that behavior comes from seeking optimal state of arousal

• the environment can stimulate arousal

• moderate levels of arousal are best

• people behave to seek optimal arousal level

Expectancy-value theory

suggests that motivation is determined by the perceived probability that a behavior will lead to a desired outcome (expectancy), and the importance of that outcome is to the person (value)

Grand unifying model of motivation and emotion

Internal stimulation and external stimulation → Drive/tension → Cognitive interpretation → Motivation