Sociology Lecture 2 - Migration theory: why do people decide (not) to move?

Which pairing correctly matches a macro-, meso- and micro-level cause of migration with its examples? A. Macro: family ties, norms and beliefs, Meso: political economy, labour market and governance, Micro: networks, communities and migration industry. B. Macro: political economy, labour market, interstate relations and governance, Meso: networks, communities and migration industry, Micro: family ties, norms and beliefs. C. Macro: networks and communities, Meso: governance and interstate relations, Micro: family ties and migration industry. D. Macro: political economy and family ties, Meso: norms and beliefs, Micro: networks and migration industry.

Macro: political economy, labour market, interstate relations and governance, Meso: networks, communities and migration industry, Micro: family ties, norms and beliefs

Which statement best captures the two central theoretical premises De Haas et al. use to understand migration?

A. Migration should be seen at the macro level as a problem to be solved and at the micro level as an automated reaction to push and pull factors.

B. Migration should be seen at the macro level as an intrinsic part of broader development and social transformation, and at the micro level as a function of capabilities and aspirations within constraints.

C. Migration is primarily a temporary reaction to geographical disequilibria, and at the micro level it is a linear function of wage differentials.

D. Migration is driven by household risk diversification at the macro level and by state policy at the micro level.

Migration should be seen at the macro level as an intrinsic part of broader development and social transformation, and at the micro level as a function of capabilities and aspirations within constraints

Which statement best captures the difference between functionalist and historical-structural approaches to migration at the macro level?

A. Functionalism sees migration as an exploitation mechanism serving capitalist interests, whereas historical-structuralism sees migration as a positive optimisation mechanism that helps society reach equilibrium.

B. Functionalism sees migration as a positive phenomenon and optimisation mechanism that helps society reach equilibrium, whereas historical-structuralism sees migration as an exploitation mechanism rooted in unequally distributed power.

C. Functionalism emphasises that equilibrium will never be reached because power is unequally distributed, whereas historical-structuralism emphasises the tendency towards equilibrium.

D. Both paradigms see migration as an outgrowth of poverty and disequilibria, but functionalism focuses on colonial legacies whereas historical-structuralism focuses on individual cost-benefit calculations.

Functionalism sees migration as a positive phenomenon and optimisation mechanism that helps society reach equilibrium, whereas historical-structuralism sees migration as an exploitation mechanism rooted in unequally distributed power

What do functionalist and historical-structural theories share, despite their fundamental differences?

A. Both see migration as an exploitation mechanism.

B. Both see migration as a positive optimisation mechanism.

C. Both rule out human agency, considering migrants as passive reactors to macro forces, and both assume that migration is primarily an outgrowth of poverty, development disequilibria and geographical income inequalities.

D. Both focus on social networks and cumulative causation.

Both rule out human agency, considering migrants as passive reactors to macro forces, and both assume that migration is primarily an outgrowth of poverty, development disequilibria and geographical income inequalities

How do historical-structural theories differ from neoclassical theories in their view of the state?

A. HS theories see states as distortions of perfect markets that affect migration costs, whereas neoclassical theories see states as drivers of migration processes in their own right.

B. Neoclassical theories see states as distortions of perfect markets that affect migration costs, whereas HS theories see states, multinational corporations and employment agencies as drivers of migration processes in their own right.

C. Both theories see states as the primary drivers of migration.

D. Both theories see states as irrelevant to migration.

Neoclassical theories see states as distortions of perfect markets that affect migration costs, whereas HS theories see states, multinational corporations and employment agencies as drivers of migration processes in their own right

Which of the following is a critique of push–pull models discussed in the lecture?

A. They provide too detailed an explanatory framework that brings demographic, environmental, political and economic factors together into a single model.

B. They overemphasise human agency and the role of micro-level beliefs, values and calculations.

C. They are merely descriptive, lack an explanatory framework that brings factors together, disregard micro-level beliefs, values and agency, and reproduce a Global South–North binary.

D. They are too focused on historical-structural constraints and ignore economic factors.

They are merely descriptive, lack an explanatory framework that brings factors together, disregard micro-level beliefs, values and agency, and reproduce a Global South–North binary

How does functionalism (specifically push–pull) frame return migration?

A. Return is seen as a success and natural outcome of the calculated household project.

B. Return can be explained by push factors (such as stringent return policy) and pull factors (such as changed conditions in the country of origin).

C. Return is part of the capitalist mentality: it happens when the destination country no longer needs the migrant's labour.

D. Return is culturally expected as the completion of the migration project.

Return can be explained by push factors (such as stringent return policy) and pull factors (such as changed conditions in the country of origin)

According to the lecture, how does development-driven migration work?

A. Improved education and media exposure reduce aspirations, which decreases migration because people become more satisfied with local opportunities.

B. Improved education and media exposure may increase feelings of relative deprivation and raise aspirations, as long as aspirations rise faster than local opportunities, migration increases.

C. Development always reduces migration because it creates local opportunities that make migration unnecessary.

D. Development increases migration only through wage differentials between sending and receiving countries.

Improved education and media exposure may increase feelings of relative deprivation and raise aspirations, as long as aspirations rise faster than local opportunities, migration increases

Which statement best captures the core idea of neoclassical migration theory?

A. Migration is a household strategy to spread income risks and overcome market constraints in sending countries.

B. Migration is an exploitation mechanism that serves capitalist interests by providing cheap labour.

C. Migration is part of the development process in which wage differentials encourage workers to move from labour-surplus to labour-scarce areas, optimising the allocation of production factors and tending towards equilibrium.

D. Migration is driven by social networks that reduce the costs and risks of movement.

Migration is part of the development process in which wage differentials encourage workers to move from labour-surplus to labour-scarce areas, optimising the allocation of production factors and tending towards equilibrium

Which of the following is NOT one of the three unrealistic assumptions of neoclassical theory identified in the lecture?

A. People are rational actors who maximise their utility.

B. Migrants have perfect knowledge of wage levels in the destination country.

C. Markets are perfectly accessible for the poor.

D. Migrants are passive victims of capitalism who are forced to move by structural constraints.

Migrants are passive victims of capitalism who are forced to move by structural constraints

How does neoclassical theory explain return migration?

A. Return is a success: the migrant has achieved their goals and returns to invest skills and savings at home.

B. Return is seen as a failure: miscalculation of costs and benefits, or not reaping the benefits of high earnings, implying impoverishment after return.

C. Return is part of the capitalist mentality: it happens when the destination country no longer needs the migrant's labour.

D. Return is culturally expected as the completion of the migration project.

Return is seen as a failure: miscalculation of costs and benefits, or not reaping the benefits of high earnings, implying impoverishment after return

Human capital theory explains migration as:

A. An investment that increases the productivity of human capital.

B. A household strategy to diversify income sources.

C. An exploitation mechanism rooted in colonial legacies.

D. A self-perpetuating process driven by networks and cumulative causation.

An investment that increases the productivity of human capital

Which statement best captures the historical-structural view of migration?

A. Migration is an optimisation mechanism that helps societies reach equilibrium.

B. Migration is an exploitation mechanism in which states, multinational corporations and employment agencies are drivers in their own right, and the control of migrant labour is both a legacy of colonialism and a result of structural international inequalities.

C. Migration is primarily a function of individual cost-benefit calculations and wage differentials.

D. Migration is driven by households seeking to spread income risks.

Migration is an exploitation mechanism in which states, multinational corporations and employment agencies are drivers in their own right, and the control of migrant labour is both a legacy of colonialism and a result of structural international inequalities

How does dependency theory differ from neoclassical theory in its view of migration and development?

A. Dependency theory sees migration as a way to improve utility and income, whereas neoclassical theory sees migration as a cause of growing global inequality.

B. Both theories see migration as a cause of growing global inequality, but dependency theory focuses on individuals whereas neoclassical theory focuses on states.

C. Dependency theory sees migration as one of the causes of growing global inequality through the exploitation of resources and labour, whereas neoclassical theory sees migration as a way to improve utility and income.

D. Dependency theory focuses on social networks, whereas neoclassical theory focuses on colonial interference.

Dependency theory sees migration as one of the causes of growing global inequality through the exploitation of resources and labour, whereas neoclassical theory sees migration as a way to improve utility and income

According to historical-structural theories, why do businesses have a strong interest in high immigration?

A. Because immigration increases cultural diversity and innovation.

B. Because it creates a disposable, vulnerable and cheap labour reserve that can be hired and fired at will, keeping wages down and boosting profits.

C. Because immigrants pay more taxes than natives.

D. Because immigration reduces the brain drain from origin countries.

Because it creates a disposable, vulnerable and cheap labour reserve that can be hired and fired at will, keeping wages down and boosting profits

What is the main critique of historical-structural theories discussed in the lecture?

A. They overemphasise human agency and the rational calculations of migrants.

B. They depict migrants as passive victims with no agency and are overly deterministic, they do not explain why, given these inequalities and structures, people still decide to move.

C. They are too descriptive and lack any explanatory framework.

D. They assume that markets are perfectly accessible for the poor.

They depict migrants as passive victims with no agency and are overly deterministic, they do not explain why, given these inequalities and structures, people still decide to move

According to the lecture, globalization theory has ambiguous effects on migration. Which statement best captures this ambiguity?

A. Globalization always increases migration because it increases inequality and access to transport and communication.

B. Globalization always decreases migration because trade and offshoring replace the need for workers to move.

C. Globalization may increase migration through growing inequality and improved transport and communication, but technological improvements also increase trade and offshoring, which may replace some forms of migration, moreover, "gated globalism" means it is not easier for everyone to move.

D. Globalization has no effect on migration, migration is driven purely by wage differentials.

Globalization may increase migration through growing inequality and improved transport and communication, but technological improvements also increase trade and offshoring, which may replace some forms of migration, moreover, "gated globalism" means it is not easier for everyone to move

What does "gated globalism" refer to in globalization theory?

A. The idea that globalization has made it easier for everyone to move.

B. The idea that it is not easier for everyone to move: visas and other socioeconomic and security barriers are imposed on some countries.

C. The idea that globalization has eliminated borders.

D. The idea that globalization only affects trade, not migration.

The idea that it is not easier for everyone to move: visas and other socioeconomic and security barriers are imposed on some countries

How do historical-structural theories explain return migration?

A. Return is a failure of the migration project.

B. Return is a success and natural outcome of the household project.

C. There are difficulties in explaining return, return happens when it is in the interest of the destination country (e.g., recession), so return is part of the capitalist mentality.

D. Return is explained by push factors (stringent return policy) and pull factors (changed conditions in origin).

There are difficulties in explaining return, return happens when it is in the interest of the destination country (e.g., recession), so return is part of the capitalist mentality

How does globalization theory frame return migration?

A. Return is a failure of the migration project.

B. There is no unique answer, with increasing interconnectedness, if this leads to more mobility, return could be seen in a more transnational manner, with circular mobility back and forth formed by social and economic relationships.

C. Return is part of the capitalist mentality.

D. Return is culturally expected as the completion of the migration project.

There is no unique answer, with increasing interconnectedness, if this leads to more mobility, return could be seen in a more transnational manner, with circular mobility back and forth formed by social and economic relationships

How does dual labour market theory explain why migrants are highly motivated to do jobs that natives shun?

A. Because migrants are less skilled and therefore only qualify for secondary-market jobs.

B. Because the demand for migrant labour is structurally embedded in modern capitalist economies, and the primary and secondary labour markets are segmented, migrants are disadvantaged in the primary market by lack of formal recognition of foreign degrees, legal status, race and gender, and are willing to take 3D jobs that natives consider low-status.

C. Because migrants are passive victims of capitalism who have no choice but to accept any job.

D. Because migrants lack social networks that would help them find primary-market jobs.

Because the demand for migrant labour is structurally embedded in modern capitalist economies, and the primary and secondary labour markets are segmented, migrants are disadvantaged in the primary market by lack of formal recognition of foreign degrees, legal status, race and gender, and are willing to take 3D jobs that natives consider low-status

In dual labour market theory, how are primary and secondary market workers distinguished?

A. Primary market workers are positively selected on the basis of degrees, formal skills, membership of majority ethnic groups, male gender and regular legal status, secondary market workers are disadvantaged by lack of education or lack of formal recognition of foreign degrees, as well as by gender, race and uncertain or irregular legal status.

B. Primary market workers are those in 3D jobs, secondary market workers are those in high-skilled jobs.

C. Primary market workers are migrants, secondary market workers are natives.

D. Primary market workers are undocumented, secondary market workers are documented.

Primary market workers are positively selected on the basis of degrees, formal skills, membership of majority ethnic groups, male gender and regular legal status, secondary market workers are disadvantaged by lack of education or lack of formal recognition of foreign degrees, as well as by gender, race and uncertain or irregular legal status

Which statement best captures the core idea of the new economics of labour migration (NELM)?

A. Migration is an individual cost-benefit calculation aimed at maximising income.

B. Migration is a household strategy to diversify income sources and spread income risks, and it does not require a wage differential, sending a member abroad is an investment funded by pooling household resources.

C. Migration is an exploitation mechanism that serves capitalist interests by providing cheap labour.

D. Migration is driven by social networks that reduce the costs and risks of movement.

Migration is a household strategy to diversify income sources and spread income risks, and it does not require a wage differential, sending a member abroad is an investment funded by pooling household resources

According to NELM, which type of deprivation mainly drives migration, and why?

A. Absolute poverty, because the very poorest people have the strongest incentive to migrate.

B. Relative deprivation, because the very poorest people usually cannot afford to migrate, while those who feel poorer compared to their neighbours or community are pushed to migrate.

C. Both absolute and relative deprivation drive migration equally, because NELM assumes that all households respond identically to economic incentives.

D. Neither: NELM argues that migration is driven purely by wage differentials between countries.

Relative deprivation, because the very poorest people usually cannot afford to migrate, while those who feel poorer compared to their neighbours or community are pushed to migrate

How does NELM explain return migration?

A. Return is a failure: the migrant miscalculated costs and benefits.

B. Return is part of the capitalist mentality: it happens when the destination country no longer needs the migrant's labour.

C. Return is seen as a success and natural outcome of the calculated household project: household insecurity is diminished, and returnees are actors of change.

D. Return is culturally expected as the completion of the migration project.

Return is seen as a success and natural outcome of the calculated household project: household insecurity is diminished, and returnees are actors of change

The notes describe NELM as "mainly a micro-level theory, but there's always a macro element." What does this mean?

A. NELM focuses on individual rational actors but also considers state policies.

B. NELM focuses on households and families, but migration is also shaped by broader structural conditions such as market constraints in sending countries.

C. NELM focuses on macro-level political economy but also considers household ties.

D. NELM focuses on networks but also considers individual calculations.

NELM focuses on households and families, but migration is also shaped by broader structural conditions such as market constraints in sending countries

The lecture links NELM to the social action perspective. Which pairing is correct?

A. Rational choice: migration is influenced by social norms and how migration is viewed by others, Symbolic interactionism: migration is a decision based on costs, benefits and risks, often made by the household.

B. Rational choice: migration is a decision based on costs, benefits and risks, often made by the household, Symbolic interactionism: migration is influenced by social norms, relationships and how migration is viewed by others.

C. Rational choice: migration is driven by structures of underdevelopment, Symbolic interactionism: migration is driven by wage differentials.

D. Rational choice: migration is culturally expected, Symbolic interactionism: migration is a household strategy.

Rational choice: migration is a decision based on costs, benefits and risks, often made by the household, Symbolic interactionism: migration is influenced by social norms, relationships and how migration is viewed by others

According to migration transition theory, what is the relationship between development and emigration?

A. Emigration increases linearly with development: the more developed a country, the more people emigrate.

B. Emigration decreases linearly with development: development always reduces emigration.

C. The relationship is non-linear and counter-intuitive: middle-income countries tend to have the highest emigration levels, and beyond a certain level of development societies transform from net emigration into net immigration countries.

D. The relationship is U-shaped: both the least and most developed countries have the highest emigration levels.

The relationship is non-linear and counter-intuitive: middle-income countries tend to have the highest emigration levels, and beyond a certain level of development societies transform from net emigration into net immigration countries

What does the "migration hump" refer to?

A. The long-term association between development and migration, in which middle-income countries have the highest emigration levels.

B. Short- to medium-term hikes in emigration in the wake of trade reforms and other economic shocks.

C. The tendency of migration to become self-perpetuating once networks reach a critical level.

D. The increase in return migration after retirement.

Short- to medium-term hikes in emigration in the wake of trade reforms and other economic shocks

According to migration transition theory, what is the relationship between levels of development and immigration?

A. The pattern for immigration is linear and intuitive: more developed countries attract more migrants.

B. The pattern for immigration is non-linear: middle-income countries attract the most migrants.

C. Immigration decreases with development.

D. There is no relationship between development and immigration.

The pattern for immigration is linear and intuitive: more developed countries attract more migrants

According to the aspirations–capabilities model, why does rapid development in low- and lower-middle-income societies often coincide with increasing emigration?

A. Because development reduces capabilities and aspirations simultaneously.

B. Because with development, both capabilities and aspirations to migrate can increase fast, while migration aspirations are likely to decrease only beyond a certain level of development when opportunity gaps with destination countries decrease significantly.

C. Because development always increases absolute poverty, which drives migration.

D. Because development reduces migration aspirations by increasing satisfaction with local opportunities.

Because with development, both capabilities and aspirations to migrate can increase fast, while migration aspirations are likely to decrease only beyond a certain level of development when opportunity gaps with destination countries decrease significantly

In the aspirations–capabilities table, what is the situation called when a person has low migration capabilities and low migration aspirations?

A. Involuntary immobility (Carling 2002)

B. (Voluntary) mobility

C. Acquiescent immobility (Schewel 2019)

D. Voluntary immobility

Acquiescent immobility (Schewel 2019)

What does "involuntary immobility" (Carling 2002) refer to in the aspirations–capabilities table?

A. Low aspirations and low capabilities: people do not want to migrate and cannot migrate, and are content.

B. High aspirations and low capabilities: people want to migrate but feel "trapped" because they lack the capability to do so.

C. Low aspirations and high capabilities: people could migrate but do not want to.

D. High aspirations and high capabilities: people want to migrate and can, resulting in most forms of migration.

High aspirations and low capabilities: people want to migrate but feel "trapped" because they lack the capability to do so

According to the slides, how is return migration framed in the aspirations–capabilities model?

A. Return is seen as a failure of the migration project.

B. Return is explained by preparedness (willingness) and readiness (resource mobilization, information on host/origin conditions) (Cassarino 2004).

C. Return is part of the capitalist mentality.

D. Return is culturally expected as the completion of the migration project.

Return is explained by preparedness (willingness) and readiness (resource mobilization, information on host/origin conditions) (Cassarino 2004)

According to migration network theory, what happens once the number of network connections in an origin area reaches a critical level?

A. Migration becomes self-correcting and eventually stops.

B. Migration becomes self-perpetuating because migration itself creates the social structure to sustain it, networks decrease the economic, social and psychological costs of migration and increase the probability of migration.

C. Migration becomes more expensive because networks become overcrowded.

D. Migration becomes entirely controlled by the state.

Migration becomes self-perpetuating because migration itself creates the social structure to sustain it, networks decrease the economic, social and psychological costs of migration and increase the probability of migration

What is the alternative concept to "migration networks" discussed in the lecture that avoids the negative connotations of illicit and profitable aspects of migration?

A. Migration systems

B. Migration intermediaries

C. Migration industry

D. Cumulative causation

Migration intermediaries

What is the key insight of migration systems theory?

A. Migration is driven primarily by wage differentials between countries.

B. One form of exchange between countries or places, such as trade, is likely to engender other forms of exchange, such as people, in both directions.

C. Migration is a household strategy to spread income risks.

D. Migration is an exploitation mechanism rooted in colonial legacies.

One form of exchange between countries or places, such as trade, is likely to engender other forms of exchange, such as people, in both directions

What is cumulative causation in migration theory?

A. Migration induces changes in social and economic structures that make additional migration more likely, it is a self-perpetuating rather than self-correcting process, challenging equilibrium models.

B. Migration is caused by the cumulative effects of push and pull factors.

C. Migration is caused by the cumulative effects of state policies over time.

D. Migration is caused by the cumulative effects of individual cost-benefit calculations.

Migration induces changes in social and economic structures that make additional migration more likely, it is a self-perpetuating rather than self-correcting process, challenging equilibrium models

According to cumulative causation theory, how can remittances affect migration in origin communities?

A. Remittances always reduce migration by improving local economic conditions.

B. Remittances can increase income inequality in origin communities, which can increase feelings of relative deprivation among non-migrant households and push more people to migrate, if migration becomes associated with success, it can give rise to a culture of migration.

C. Remittances have no effect on migration.

D. Remittances reduce relative deprivation by making everyone equally better off.

Remittances can increase income inequality in origin communities, which can increase feelings of relative deprivation among non-migrant households and push more people to migrate, if migration becomes associated with success, it can give rise to a culture of migration

What is the difference between financial and social remittances?

A. Financial remittances are money sent back home by the migrant, social remittances are ideas and values sent back home by the migrant.

B. Financial remittances are ideas and values, social remittances are money.

C. Financial remittances are sent by the state, social remittances are sent by NGOs.

D. Financial remittances are only sent by refugees, social remittances only by labour migrants.

Financial remittances are money sent back home by the migrant, social remittances are ideas and values sent back home by the migrant

What does the "culture of migration" refer to?

A. The idea that migration is an exceptional choice that people make only when forced by economic necessity.

B. The idea that migration stops being seen as an exceptional choice and becomes the expected life path, almost a rite of passage, staying at home is associated with failure, and not migrating can carry social stigma.

C. The idea that migration is a cultural exchange between sending and receiving societies.

D. The idea that migration is driven by cultural differences between countries.

The idea that migration stops being seen as an exceptional choice and becomes the expected life path, almost a rite of passage, staying at home is associated with failure, and not migrating can carry social stigma

The lecture connects the culture of migration to symbolic interactionism. Which statement best captures this connection?

A. Migration is an economic act driven by cost-benefit calculations.

B. People act based on the meanings they attach to things, and those meanings are built through social interaction, thus migration acquires social meaning (prestige, adulthood, success) through community interaction and shared narratives.

C. Migration is determined by structural constraints and power inequalities.

D. Migration is a household strategy to spread risks.

People act based on the meanings they attach to things, and those meanings are built through social interaction, thus migration acquires social meaning (prestige, adulthood, success) through community interaction and shared narratives

How does migration network theory explain return migration?

A. Return is a failure of the migration project.

B. Return is part of the capitalist mentality: it happens when the destination country no longer needs the migrant's labour.

C. Just as networks lower the costs and risks of leaving, they also lower the risks of returning, in some migration cultures, return is culturally expected as the completion of the migration project.

D. Return is seen as a success and natural outcome of the calculated household project.

Just as networks lower the costs and risks of leaving, they also lower the risks of returning, in some migration cultures, return is culturally expected as the completion of the migration project

De Haas, Fokkema and Fihri studied return migration intentions among Moroccan migrants in Europe. Which finding is consistent with their results?

A. Age and gender strongly affect the decision to return, with older men being most likely to intend to return.

B. Socio-cultural integration is positively associated with return intentions, while economic ties to the destination country decrease return intentions.

C. Length of stay positively impacts the likelihood of return, higher education is associated with higher return intentions, and economic ties to the destination do NOT decrease return intentions, while economic ties with the origin have a positive effect.

D. The findings fully support neoclassical theory, because return is explained by miscalculations of costs and benefits.

Length of stay positively impacts the likelihood of return, higher education is associated with higher return intentions, and economic ties to the destination do NOT decrease return intentions, while economic ties with the origin have a positive effect

The Moroccan study examined the relationship between socio-cultural integration and return intentions. What did it find?

A. A positive association: the more integrated migrants were, the more likely they were to intend to return.

B. A clear negative association: the more socio-culturally integrated migrants were, the less likely they were to intend to return.

C. No association at all between integration and return intentions.

D. A U-shaped association: both the least and most integrated migrants intended to return.

A clear negative association: the more socio-culturally integrated migrants were, the less likely they were to intend to return

The Moroccan study found that migrants living in some European countries were more likely to intend to return than those living in others. Which pattern did it find?

A. Those living in France were more likely to intend to return than those in Spain, Italy and the Netherlands.

B. Those living in Spain, Italy and the Netherlands were more likely to intend to return than those living in France.

C. Return intentions were identical across all European countries.

D. Those living in Germany were most likely to intend to return.

Those living in Spain, Italy and the Netherlands were more likely to intend to return than those living in France

The findings of the Moroccan return migration study were interpreted as supporting neither neoclassical theory nor NELM completely. Why?

A. Because return migration was found to be driven exclusively by failures, which supports NE but not NELM.

B. Because return migration was found to be driven exclusively by success, which supports NELM but not NE.

C. Because return intentions were shaped by a combination of factors, including length of stay, education, socio-cultural integration, ties to origin, and quality-of-life conditions, which cannot be fully explained by either NE (failure) or NELM (success) alone.

D. Because the study found that return migration is entirely determined by age and gender, which neither theory predicts.

Because return intentions were shaped by a combination of factors, including length of stay, education, socio-cultural integration, ties to origin, and quality-of-life conditions, which cannot be fully explained by either NE (failure) or NELM (success) alone

The Moroccan study notes that recent theories challenge classical assimilation theory. What is the challenge?

A. That migrants will inevitably lose ties to their origin country as they assimilate.

B. That transnational ties and integration can coexist, contrary to the classical assimilation assumption that economic and social ties at the destination decrease the costs of staying and increase the costs of returning.

C. That assimilation is impossible for Moroccan migrants.

D. That return migration is always a failure.

That transnational ties and integration can coexist, contrary to the classical assimilation assumption that economic and social ties at the destination decrease the costs of staying and increase the costs of returning

Samaddar (2020) criticises The Age of Migration. Which of the following is NOT one of his criticisms?

A. The book has a labour market bias at the expense of displacement.

B. The book neglects history and coloniality and has conceptual blind spots such as border regimes and Eurocentrism.

C. The book focuses too much on temporality, spatiality and agency, at the expense of economic factors.

D. The book fails to engage with relations between forced and "normal" migration flows, between security/control practices and migrant autonomy, and between border and migration.

The book focuses too much on temporality, spatiality and agency, at the expense of economic factors

Samaddar argues that The Age of Migration neglects three poles of migration studies. What are they?

A. Temporality, spatiality and agency.

B. Macro, meso and micro levels.

C. Labour, family and forced migration.

D. Push, pull and network factors.

Temporality, spatiality and agency

Samaddar argues that "concepts move in groups or families." What does this mean?

A. That a reality cannot be understood by a single term or approach (such as labour market or social transformation), multiple concepts are needed.

B. That migration concepts should be kept separate from each other.

C. That concepts are always defined by states.

D. That only economic concepts matter for understanding migration.

That a reality cannot be understood by a single term or approach (such as labour market or social transformation), multiple concepts are needed

What does Samaddar argue about the treatment of borders and other apparatuses of migration in The Age of Migration?

A. The book overemphasises borders and apparatuses of migration.

B. The book gives borders and apparatuses of migration (camps, frontier forces, legislative design, technology, capital–labour dispositions) the attention they deserve.

C. The focus on settlement and resettlement leads to overemphasis on aspects like ethnicisation, while apparatuses of migration such as camps, borders, frontier forces, legislative design, new technological modes, forms of movement and capital–labour dispositions do not receive the attention they deserve.

D. The book argues that borders are irrelevant to migration.

The focus on settlement and resettlement leads to overemphasis on aspects like ethnicisation, while apparatuses of migration such as camps, borders, frontier forces, legislative design, new technological modes, forms of movement and capital–labour dispositions do not receive the attention they deserve

What paradox does Samaddar highlight in relation to citizenship and statelessness?

A. That citizenship is a birth rite and therefore statelessness is impossible.

B. That precisely when Castles placed hope in ensuring justice for migrants through granting citizenship, more and more people were becoming stateless (e.g., Rohingyas), citizenship is not a birth rite, and it is doubtful whether citizenship can be an effective remedy to statelessness.

C. That statelessness has been eliminated by liberal citizenship norms.

D. That citizenship and statelessness are unrelated concepts.

That precisely when Castles placed hope in ensuring justice for migrants through granting citizenship, more and more people were becoming stateless (e.g., Rohingyas), citizenship is not a birth rite, and it is doubtful whether citizenship can be an effective remedy to statelessness

According to Samaddar, what are the "three Rs" that become factors in the production of statelessness?

A. Race, religion and resource.

B. Refugees, returnees and residents.

C. Rights, restrictions and regulations.

D. Receiving, sending and transit countries.

Race, religion and resource

According to Ravenstein's laws of migration (1885, 1889), what did he assert about migration?

A. Migration is primarily a response to state policies, border controls and recruitment practices, rather than economic factors.

B. Migration is an inseparable part of economic development, and the major causes of migration are economic; migration in one direction tends to generate counter-movements and takes place in clear spatial patterns.

C. Migration is driven mainly by environmental and demographic factors, and economic factors play only an intermediate role.

D. Migration is a largely random process in which no clear spatial patterns link particular origins and destinations.

Migration is an inseparable part of economic development, and the major causes of migration are economic; migration in one direction tends to generate counter-movements and takes place in clear spatial patterns

Lee's (1966) theory of migration argues that migration decisions are determined by:

A. Wage differentials between origin and destination, adjusted for the probability of finding employment.

B. Household strategies to diversify income and spread risk across different labour markets.

C. Structural forces such as colonialism, unequal terms of trade and the incorporation of peripheral regions into the world economy.

D. "Plus" and "minus" factors in areas of origin and destination, intervening obstacles (such as distance, physical barriers and immigration laws), and personal factors.

"Plus" and "minus" factors in areas of origin and destination, intervening obstacles (such as distance, physical barriers and immigration laws), and personal factors

The Age of Migration notes a paradox: if development and global inequality boost migration, why has the volume of international migration as a share of world population remained remarkably stable? What is that share?

A. Around three per cent over the past decades.

B. Around ten per cent over the past decades.

C. Around one per cent over the past decades.

D. Around twenty per cent over the past decades.

Around three per cent over the past decades

The Harris-Todaro model extended neoclassical theory to explain:

A. Why international migration continues despite tightening immigration restrictions and border controls in destination countries.

B. Why skilled migrants tend to move to countries where they can expect the highest returns on their human capital investments.

C. The continuation of rural-to-urban labour migration in developing countries despite high urban unemployment, by adjusting the expected rural-urban income differential for the probability of finding an urban job.

D. Why households in developing countries send out the best-suited members to gain income elsewhere and remit money home.

The continuation of rural-to-urban labour migration in developing countries despite high urban unemployment, by adjusting the expected rural-urban income differential for the probability of finding an urban job

Sjaastad's human capital theory helps explain the "selectivity" of migration. What does this mean?

A. Only the poorest members of origin populations migrate, because they have the strongest incentive to improve their income.

B. Migrants tend to come from particular sub-sections of origin populations; the young and higher skilled tend to migrate more because they expect higher returns on their human capital investment.

C. States select migrants on the basis of their degrees and formal skills, which explains why only the educated and wealthy migrate.

D. Migrants choose destinations on the basis of cultural and linguistic similarity rather than economic returns.

Migrants tend to come from particular sub-sections of origin populations; the young and higher skilled tend to migrate more because they expect higher returns on their human capital investment

The "myth of the immobile peasant" refers to:

A. The implicit assumption that pre-modern societies consisted of isolated, stable, homogeneous and egalitarian peasant communities in which migration was exceptional, even though historical research shows peasant societies were mobile.

B. The idea that peasants never migrate because they are tied to the land by tradition and community obligations.

C. The assumption that migration is a modern phenomenon that began with the Industrial Revolution and did not exist in agrarian societies.

D. The idea that rural populations are always pushed to migrate by poverty and landlessness.

The implicit assumption that pre-modern societies consisted of isolated, stable, homogeneous and egalitarian peasant communities in which migration was exceptional, even though historical research shows peasant societies were mobile

In Skeldon's migration and development tiers, which tier includes countries such as Mexico, Morocco, Egypt, Turkey, the Philippines and Indonesia that simultaneously experience high emigration and rural-to-urban migration?

A. The old and new core countries, characterised by net immigration.

B. The expanding core, with high immigration and emigration as well as rural-to-urban migration.

C. The labour frontier.

D. The resource niche, with variable, weaker forms of migration and low international migration.

The labour frontier

What is the difference between migration transition theory and the migration hump?

A. Migration transition theory refers to short-term hikes in emigration after economic shocks, while the migration hump refers to the long-term association between development and migration.

B. Migration transition theory focuses on the internal dynamics of migration processes, while the migration hump refers to the long-term association between development and migration.

C. Migration transition theory focuses on the role of migrant networks and cumulative causation, while the migration hump refers to short-term hikes in immigration after trade reforms.

D. Migration transition theory focuses on long-term associations between development and migration, while the migration hump refers to short- to medium-term hikes in emigration in the wake of trade reforms and other economic shocks.

Migration transition theory focuses on long-term associations between development and migration, while the migration hump refers to short- to medium-term hikes in emigration in the wake of trade reforms and other economic shocks

How does Sen define human capability, as used in the aspirations-capabilities model?

A. The capacity of people to make their own choices and impose them on the world, even under structural constraints.

B. The ability of human beings to lead lives they have reason to value, and to enhance the substantive choices (or "freedoms") they have.

C. The ability of states to decide who can leave and enter, and to regulate population mobility in the national interest.

D. The sum of people's skills, knowledge and physical abilities that can be invested in migration to increase productivity.

The ability of human beings to lead lives they have reason to value, and to enhance the substantive choices (or "freedoms") they have

The aspirations-capabilities model distinguishes instrumental and intrinsic dimensions of mobility. Which statement is correct?

A. Instrumental: migration is a resource that enables people to access better opportunities. Intrinsic: the wellbeing derived from the awareness of having the freedom to explore new horizons, irrespective of whether people actually use such mobility freedoms.

B. Instrumental: the wellbeing derived from the awareness of having the freedom to explore new horizons. Intrinsic: migration is a resource that enables people to access better opportunities.

C. Instrumental: migration is driven by economic motives. Intrinsic: migration is driven by cultural and emotional motives.

D. Instrumental: migration is a means to maximise income. Intrinsic: migration is an end in itself that is always wellbeing-enhancing.

Instrumental: migration is a resource that enables people to access better opportunities. Intrinsic: the wellbeing derived from the awareness of having the freedom to explore new horizons, irrespective of whether people actually use such mobility freedoms

In migration network theory, what are "bridgeheads"?

A. Recruiters, smugglers and other intermediaries who facilitate migration across borders for profit.

B. State officials who control the entry and settlement of migrants and decide who can stay.

C. Already settled migrants who reduce the risks and costs of subsequent migration and settlement by providing information, organizing travel, finding work and housing, and assisting in adaptation to a new environment.

D. Migrants who return to their origin communities and discourage others from migrating based on their negative experiences.

Already settled migrants who reduce the risks and costs of subsequent migration and settlement by providing information, organizing travel, finding work and housing, and assisting in adaptation to a new environment

Why has the term "migration industry" been contested?

A. Because it overemphasises the role of states in facilitating and controlling migration.

B. Because it underestimates the role of migrant networks in reducing the costs and risks of migration.

C. Because it treats migration as a purely economic process and ignores its social and cultural dimensions.

D. Because of its negative connotations and frequent association with illicit and profitable aspects of migration facilitation and control; an alternative concept is "migration intermediaries."

Because of its negative connotations and frequent association with illicit and profitable aspects of migration facilitation and control; an alternative concept is "migration intermediaries."

According to de Haas, how can settled migrants evolve from "migration bridgeheads" to "migration gatekeepers"?

A. Constant claims on support from family and friends in origin communities can lead to social distancing and a declining willingness to provide network assistance; settled migrants may favour restrictive immigration policies when new arrivals are perceived as a threat to group status.

B. Settled migrants always help as many newcomers as possible, which is why migration networks never break down once established.

C. Gatekeepers are state officials who decide which migrants are allowed to enter and settle, and who therefore determine the size of migrant networks.

D. Gatekeepers are employers who recruit migrant workers and thereby stimulate the formation of migration networks.

Constant claims on support from family and friends in origin communities can lead to social distancing and a declining willingness to provide network assistance; settled migrants may favour restrictive immigration policies when new arrivals are perceived as a threat to group status

What is the "ecological inference fallacy" that de Haas et al. warn against in the Moroccan return migration study?

A. Assuming that migration is driven by ecological factors such as environmental degradation and climate change, rather than by political and economic factors.

B. Deriving inferences on individual migrants' behaviour from aggregate, macro-level statistics, which only holds if immigrant groups are homogeneous.

C. Assuming that all migrants from a particular country share the same motivations and experiences.

D. Using qualitative data to make claims about migration patterns that can only be established with quantitative data.

Deriving inferences on individual migrants' behaviour from aggregate, macro-level statistics, which only holds if immigrant groups are homogeneous

The Moroccan return migration study used data from the 2005 survey "Les Marocains Résidant à l'Étranger." What was a main drawback of this survey?

A. The survey was conducted online and therefore excluded migrants without internet access, biasing the sample toward the highly educated.

B. The survey included only women, biasing the sample toward female migrants and their specific return intentions.

C. Interviews were held in Moroccan port cities among migrants visiting Morocco, biasing the sample toward migrants with a higher than average attachment to Morocco, and only household heads (predominantly male) were interviewed.

D. The survey was conducted in a single European country, making it impossible to compare return intentions across destination countries.

Interviews were held in Moroccan port cities among migrants visiting Morocco, biasing the sample toward migrants with a higher than average attachment to Morocco, and only household heads (predominantly male) were interviewed

In the context of the Moroccan study, how have politicians and media portrayed the maintenance of socioeconomic ties and identification with origin societies, and dual citizenship?

A. As a manifestation of successful integration, because maintaining ties with both countries shows that migrants have adapted to their new society while remaining attached to their origin.

B. As a form of transnationalism celebrated by politicians and media as a sign of multiculturalism and global interconnectedness.

C. As a purely private matter with no bearing on integration or return intentions, because dual citizenship is a legal status without social consequences.

D. As a manifestation of the inability or even unwillingness to "integrate"; dual citizenship is increasingly negatively interpreted as "double loyalty" which would actually block integration.

As a manifestation of the inability or even unwillingness to "integrate"; dual citizenship is increasingly negatively interpreted as "double loyalty" which would actually block integration

Samaddar refers to Sylvia Federici's "reproduction crisis." What does this refer to in his critique of The Age of Migration?

A. When labour has no option but to become "outlaw" — illegally crossing the borders of economies and territories — a phenomenon the labour market approach conceals.

B. The crisis of social reproduction in receiving countries caused by the influx of migrant workers who compete for housing, education and healthcare.

C. The crisis of biological reproduction in origin countries caused by the emigration of young workers and the resulting demographic decline.

D. The crisis of capitalist reproduction caused by declining profits and the need to import cheap labour to sustain economic growth.

When labour has no option but to become "outlaw" — illegally crossing the borders of economies and territories — a phenomenon the labour market approach conceals

William Walters' concept of "viapolitics" refers to:

A. The politics of visa regimes and border controls that determine who can cross which borders and under what conditions.

B. The politics of the road and the vehicles of migration — how migrants move (boats, trains, vans, tunnels, etc.) and how the vehicular is a contested field of mobile governmentality policing transport routes.

C. The politics of virtual communication and social media that migrants use to organize their journeys and maintain transnational ties.

D. The politics of violence and victimisation that migrants experience during their journeys, including smuggling, trafficking and extortion.

The politics of the road and the vehicles of migration — how migrants move (boats, trains, vans, tunnels, etc.) and how the vehicular is a contested field of mobile governmentality policing transport routes

According to Samaddar, how does the IOM's migration governance framework contribute to the criminalisation of migration?

A. By encouraging states to open their borders to all migrants, which undermines national security and leads to public backlash against migration.

B. By focusing exclusively on the human rights of migrants and ignoring the security concerns of states, which leads to uncontrolled migration.

C. By aiming to permit migration according to prescribed codes of regulation and forbid migration as an autonomous human act, with migration and border agencies working with justice and security agencies to address terrorism, trafficking, smuggling and other trans-border criminal activity.

D. By privatising border control and detention centres, which creates a profit motive for the criminalisation and detention of migrants.

By aiming to permit migration according to prescribed codes of regulation and forbid migration as an autonomous human act, with migration and border agencies working with justice and security agencies to address terrorism, trafficking, smuggling and other trans-border criminal activity

Samaddar notes a worldwide shift from jus soli to jus sanguinis. What does this illustrate?

A. That citizenship is increasingly granted on the basis of residence rather than descent, which makes it easier for migrants to naturalise and integrate.

B. That states are shifting from jus sanguinis to jus soli, which reflects the growing acceptance of immigrants and their descendants as full members of society.

C. That citizenship and migration are unrelated concepts, because citizenship is determined by descent while migration is determined by economic factors.

D. That citizenship is overwhelmingly a "birth right" and that citizenship and migration do not happily sit together, making it doubtful whether citizenship can be an effective remedy to statelessness.

That citizenship is overwhelmingly a "birth right" and that citizenship and migration do not happily sit together, making it doubtful whether citizenship can be an effective remedy to statelessness