Unit 4 Vocabulary: Scientific, Philosphical, and Political Developments

A comprehensive vocabulary review of the top 50 terms covering scientific, philosophical, and political developments from c. 1648 to c. 1815 for AP European History Unit 4.

Scientific Revolution

A period in the 16th and 17th centuries when Europeans increasingly used observation, experimentation, and mathematics to explain the natural world, challenging ancient and medieval authorities.

Heliocentric theory

The model that places the Sun at the center of the solar system, with Earth and the other planets orbiting it; it challenged the traditional belief that Earth was the center.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Astronomer who argued that Earth and the other planets orbit the Sun, presenting a major challenge to the traditional geocentric model.

Galileo Galilei

Italian scientist whose telescope observations supported heliocentrism and brought him into conflict with the Roman Catholic Church.

Johannes Kepler

Astronomer who demonstrated that planets travel in elliptical orbits, strengthening the heliocentric model.

Isaac Newton

English scientist whose laws of motion and universal gravitation explained the movement of objects on Earth and in space.

Scientific method

A systematic way of investigating questions through observation, forming hypotheses, experimentation, and evaluating evidence.

Francis Bacon

English thinker who promoted inductive reasoning and experimentation, arguing that knowledge should be based on careful observation.

René Descartes

French philosopher and mathematician who emphasized deductive reasoning, logic, and systematic doubt as paths to knowledge.

Enlightenment

An 18th-century intellectual movement that applied reason and critical thinking to government, society, economics, religion, and education.

Philosophes

Enlightenment writers and thinkers, especially in France, who used reason and writing to criticize institutions and propose reforms.

John Locke

English philosopher who argued that people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property and that governments rule with the consent of the governed.

Natural rights

Rights people possess by nature, rather than rights granted by a ruler; Locke identified life, liberty, and property as fundamental rights.

Social contract

The idea that government is based on an agreement among people to establish political authority and protect society.

Thomas Hobbes

English thinker who argued that people need a strong government to maintain order and prevent society from descending into conflict.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Enlightenment thinker who argued that legitimate government rests on the people and should express the general will.

General will

Rousseau's idea of the common good or collective interest of the political community, which laws should represent.

Baron de Montesquieu

French thinker who argued that political liberty is best protected by dividing government power among separate branches.

Separation of powers

The division of government authority among legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Voltaire

French writer who criticized religious intolerance, censorship, and abuses of power and advocated civil liberties and religious toleration.

Denis Diderot

French philosopher who edited the Encyclopédie, a major reference work that collected knowledge and spread Enlightenment ideas.

Encyclopédie

A multi-volume reference work edited by Diderot that organized knowledge, promoted critical inquiry, and challenged some traditional authorities.

Mary Wollstonecraft

British writer who argued that women deserved equal educational opportunities and should be treated as rational individuals.

Cesare Beccaria

Italian reformer who opposed torture and arbitrary punishment and argued that laws and penalties should be rational and proportionate.

Deism

Belief that a creator established the universe and its natural laws but does not continually intervene in human affairs.

Religious toleration

Acceptance of people's right to practice different religions without government persecution; an important Enlightenment principle.

Salon

A gathering, often hosted by an educated woman, where writers, thinkers, and elites discussed literature, science, politics, and philosophy.

Print culture

The growing circulation of books, newspapers, pamphlets, and periodicals, which helped spread Enlightenment ideas to a wider audience.

Public sphere

Spaces where people discussed public issues and formed opinions, including salons, coffeehouses, newspapers, and pamphlets.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist whose The Wealth of Nations argued that competition, specialization, and freer markets could increase prosperity.

Laissez-faire

The economic principle that governments should interfere as little as possible in economic activity.

Mercantilism

An economic system in which governments regulated trade to increase national wealth and power, often by encouraging exports and limiting imports.

Physiocrats

French economic thinkers who believed that agriculture was the main source of wealth and that economies worked best with less government interference.

Agricultural Revolution

Changes in farming methods and land use during the 18th century that increased food production and helped support population growth.

Enclosure

The consolidation of common or scattered farmland into privately controlled farms, increasing efficiency but sometimes reducing poor villagers' access to land.

Population growth

The increase in Europe's population during the 18th century, supported by more reliable food supplies and declining mortality in some regions.

Consumer Revolution

The 18th-century expansion in the purchase of household goods and personal items, reflecting growing trade and changing lifestyles.

Bourgeoisie

The middle social groups, including merchants, professionals, and business owners, whose wealth and influence grew with commerce.

Baroque

An artistic style known for drama, movement, and rich decoration, often used by monarchs and the Catholic Church to express power and devotion.

Rococo

An ornate and decorative artistic style popular in the early and mid-18th century, often associated with aristocratic interiors and elegant, playful subjects.

Neoclassicism

An artistic movement inspired by ancient Greece and Rome that emphasized order, restraint, civic virtue, and public duty.

Novel

A lengthy work of prose fiction that explores individual experiences and social relationships; novels became increasingly popular in the 18th century.

Enlightened absolutism

A form of monarchy in which rulers adopted selected Enlightenment reforms in areas such as education, law, and administration while retaining centralized power.

Frederick II (Frederick the Great)

King of Prussia who promoted religious toleration, education, and some legal and economic reforms while maintaining strong royal authority and a powerful military state.

Catherine II (Catherine the Great)

Empress of Russia who supported education and Enlightenment ideas and considered legal reform, but strengthened noble privileges and maintained serfdom.

Joseph II

Habsburg ruler who pursued reforms including greater religious toleration and efforts to improve peasant conditions; many reforms faced resistance and were reversed.

Serfdom

A system in which peasants were legally tied to an estate and owed labor, payments, or other obligations to landowners; it remained powerful in eastern Europe and Russia.

Pugachev Rebellion

A major peasant and Cossack uprising in Russia from 1773 to 1775; its suppression helped push Catherine the Great toward greater reliance on the nobility.

Continuity and change

An AP history framework for identifying what remained the same and what changed over time; Unit 4 shows new ideas challenging older institutions even as monarchies and social hierarchies persisted.

Scientific Revolution to Enlightenment

The connection in which scientific observation and reason inspired Enlightenment thinkers to question traditional authority and apply critical thinking to politics, religion, and society.

Deductive Thinking

method of logical argument where a specific conclusion is necessarily & undeniably forced by a set of general statements (premises)

Inductive Thinking

bottom-up mental process where you look at specific observations, data, or experiences & use them to form a broad general conclusion or theory