See “American Pageant” Chapters 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22.

Key Questions

• How did the concept of manifest destiny drive westward expansion?

• The United States and its citizens believed it was their god given right to expand the nation, culture, institutions, and values westward from the east to west. Nationalism was on the rise after the war of 1812 and the US felt it had to compete territorially with the EU. Also, the expansion would be easier with new technological improvements and would solve overpopulation in the east. 

• What were the causes and consequences of the Mexican-American War?

• Causes: The United States and Mexico had disputed borders over Texas. The US technically invaded what Mexico believed was Mexican territory and Mexico retaliated, manifest destiny, President James K. Polk's expansionist agenda contributed to the war. He sought to acquire California and New Mexico and was willing to use force to achieve these territorial goals. also us annexation of texas seemed like an act of war.

• Consequences: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo(1848): mexico gave US lots of territory (cali, arizona, new mexico, nevada, utah, some of colorado, wyoming, kansas & oklahoma) for very $15 million, gadsden purchase (1853): small territory purchase in arizona and new mexico for 10 mil (overpaid) transcontinental railroad, sectional tensions on new territory slavery stance, strained us mexico relations, us promises to respect citizenship of oreviously mexicans on now us land, will it proviso: ban slavery in past mexican land, didn’t pass, gold rush (1848) —> 100k moved to cali by 1850 —> became a state

• To what extent was the Compromise of 1850 a success?

• Compromise of 1850: California Admission Act (free state), Texas Boundary Act(texas gave up some parts of present-day NM in exchange for freedom of public debt), NM and Utah Territories Act (popular sovereignty on slavery), Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 (required return of escaped slaves to owners even in free states), Abolition of Slave Trade in the District of Columbia Act, Debt Relief for Texas Act, Personal Liberty Laws (counteracted fugitive slave act and protect free black ppl)

• Temporarily preserved union, free california was win for north, slave-trade ban in DC was in for north, increased tensions, bleeding kansas: people would kill to win pop-sovereignty vote, failed to prevent civil war 

• How significant was the Dred Scott Case as a cause of the Civil War?

• The dred scott case declared the Missouri Compromise (prohibited slavery in territories) unconstitutional and slaves weren;t entitled to the rights of citizens. → legalized slavery everywhere, increased sectional tensions by siding with south, undermined efforts to compromise, fuel for abolitionist movements→ rise of the republican party as anti-slavery party. 

• Should the South have seceded from the Union?

• If they never seceded maybe slavery would’ve never been addressed

   

• How was life affected by the Civil War?

• Bloodiest conflict: 620k killed 

• Economic impact: south faced economic downfall after heavy reliance on slavery, sparked industrialization in north → economic growth and tech advances 

• Abolition of slavery

• Women: women stepped into traditional men's jobs, war prompted women's right discussions 

• Political Change: strengthened federal authority and abolished argument of states rights 

• Infrastructure: mostly in south, railroads, bridges, and cities were destroyed 

• Health + Medicine: advances in medicine after terrible treatment during war 

• Reconstruction: integrated african americans into society and helped south bounce back

• Why were there riots in NYC during the Civil War?

• New York City was a city of opportunity and immigrants. However, among the city of hope there was a great hierarchy where Irish people were considered the lowest of the whites and would do all kinds of dirty jobs for money. The Irish were afraid that the newly freedmen would steal these jobs and put them out of work.  

• Why did the North win the Civil War?

• The North won the Civil War when Lincoln announced the Emancipation Proclamation. This states that all black people of the south would be freed and firmly established that the civil war was about slavery not just states rights. This incentivized thousands of free black men in the north to enlist in the army and continue fighting when spirits were getting low. 

• The North had strong political leadership with President Abraham Lincoln

• The Union Navy effectively blockaded Southern ports, confederates became poor and had no navy

• The North had a larger population and greater access to resources, including food, manpower, and infrastructure.

• The North had a more developed industrial base

• How was Presidential Reconstruction different from Congressional Reconstruction?

• Presidential reconstruction: Any former confederate who was not a top leader could be pardoned if they swore loyalty to the United States, 10% of a state was required to swear allegiance to the US to be readmitted,

• Congressional Reconstruction: 50.1% of a confederate state had to swear future and past loyalty to the united states to be readmitted, aimed to protect the rights of freed slaves and punish the Southern states.

• What was life like for African-Americans during Reconstruction

• Black people struggled a lot especially due to pseudo laws that inhibited them from exercising the rights granted to them by the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments for example Jim Crow Laws and just beatings to prevent black politicians and voters. 

• gained legal rights and opportunities: African-Americans were elected to state legislatures and Congress

• rise of white supremacist groups, KKK, intimidation

• How successful was Reconstruction?

critics argue that Reconstruction fell short in fully protecting the rights of freed slaves.

• ex: Jim Crow laws, Economic instability and corruption in the South, Resistance and violence from white supremacist and limited land redistribution and economic opportunities for freed slaves.

• Why did Reconstruction end?

The Reconstruction era in the United States ended due to a combination of factors. Here are some key reasons:

1. Political Compromise: The Compromise of 1877 marked the end of Reconstruction. It was an informal agreement between Republicans and Democrats, where Republicans agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South in exchange for the election of Rutherford B. Hayes as President.

2. Loss of Northern Will: Over time, Northern support for Reconstruction waned. Many Northerners grew tired of the ongoing conflict and racial tensions in the South, and they prioritized other issues such as economic growth and westward expansion.

3. Rise of Southern Resistance: Southern white Democrats, known as Redeemers, gradually regained political power in the South. They implemented policies to restrict the rights of African Americans, such as Jim Crow laws and poll taxes, effectively undermining the progress made during Reconstruction.

4. Supreme Court Decisions: The Supreme Court issued several rulings that weakened federal enforcement of civil rights laws. For example, the Slaughter-House Cases (1873) limited the scope of the Fourteenth Amendment's protections.

5. Economic Challenges: The Panic of 1873 and subsequent economic downturns diverted attention and resources away from Reconstruction efforts. The focus shifted towards economic recovery and industrialization.
   

Key Terms (If a term is not in your book, find it in another source)

Amnesty: When somebody is granted full pardon. Under Lincoln's plan during reconstruction any past confederates besides the top leaders would be granted amnesty or pardon if they swre their loyalty to the united states (

Black Codes: The Black Codes were laws enacted in the Southern states after the Civil War, aimed at restricting the rights and freedoms of African Americans. These codes sought to maintain white supremacy by imposing harsh restrictions on the newly freed slaves, such as limiting their mobility, controlling their labor, and denying them basic civil rights.

“Bleeding Kansas”: "Bleeding Kansas" refers to the violent conflicts that occurred in the Kansas Territory during the mid-1850s. These conflicts arose due to the debate over whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free state or a slave state. Pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers clashed, leading to widespread violence and bloodshed, foreshadowing the tensions that would eventually lead to the Civil War.

Carpetbaggers: Carpetbaggers were Northern businessmen, politicians, and opportunists who migrated to the South during the Reconstruction era. They were often perceived as exploiting the South's economic and political instability for personal gain. While some carpetbaggers genuinely aimed to help rebuild the region, others were corrupt and sought to profit from the South's post-war turmoil.

Civil Rights Act: The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was the first federal law to grant citizenship (b4 14th amendment) and states were forbidden to pass laws that inhibit AA freedoms. It aimed to counteract the Black Codes and ensure that freed slaves had the same legal rights as white citizens. The act marked an important step towards racial equality, although its enforcement was limited and subsequent legislation was needed to fully protect civil rights.

Civil War Amendments: The Civil War Amendments, also known as the Reconstruction Amendments, are a series of three constitutional amendments ratified after the Civil War. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery, the Fourteenth Amendment granted equal protection under the law to all citizens, and the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited racial discrimination in voting rights. These amendments aimed to secure the rights and freedoms of African Americans and reshape the nation's legal framework.

Compromise of 1850: The Compromise of 1850 was a series of legislative measures aimed at resolving the territorial and slavery disputes between the Northern and Southern states. It included provisions such as the admission of California as a free state, the strengthening of the Fugitive Slave Act, and the organization of the Utah and New Mexico territories without specific reference to slavery. While it temporarily eased tensions, it ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of the Civil War.

Compromise of 1877: The Compromise of 1877 was a political agreement that resolved the disputed presidential election of 1876 between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel Tilden. As part of the compromise, Hayes, the Republican candidate, was declared the winner in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction and allowing Southern Democrats to regain control.

Confederacy: The Confederacy refers to the Confederate States of America, a group of 11 Southern states that seceded from the United States in 1860-1861. The Confederacy was formed in response to the election of Abraham Lincoln and the growing tensions over slavery. The Confederate states fought against the Union in the American Civil War (1861-1865) but were ultimately defeated.

Copperheads: Copperheads were a faction of Northern Democrats during the American Civil War who opposed the war and called for a negotiated peace with the Confederacy. They were mainly concentrated in the Midwest and were named after the venomous snake, symbolizing their perceived treachery. Copperheads were criticized by Republicans and Unionists for their perceived disloyalty.

Credit Mobilier Scandal: The Credit Mobilier Scandal was a political scandal in the United States during the 1870s. It involved the Union Pacific Railroad and the Credit Mobilier of America, a construction company that was awarded contracts to build the railroad. The scandal revealed that members of Congress had received bribes and stock shares in exchange for favorable legislation and contracts. The scandal tarnished the reputation of several politicians and highlighted corruption in government.

Dred Scott Decision: The Dred Scott Decision was a landmark Supreme Court case in 1857. The court ruled that Dred Scott, a slave who had lived in a free state, was not entitled to his freedom because slaves were considered property under the Constitution. The decision also declared that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories, further intensifying the sectional tensions that eventually led to the American Civil War.

Election of 1860: Crucial US presidential race with Lincoln, Douglas, Breckinridge, and Bell. Led to Southern secession and Civil War.

Emancipation Proclamation: Lincoln's 1862 order freeing slaves in Confederate territory, shifting war focus and weakening the Confederacy.

Fort Sumter: Charleston Harbor fort where first Civil War shots were fired on April 12, 1861, starting the war.

Freedmen's Bureau: 1865 agency aiding newly freed African Americans and white refugees in the South. Offered food, medical care, education, and legal assistance.

Fugitive Slave Act: Controversial 1850 law demanding return of escaped slaves, even in free states. Increased North-South tensions over slavery.

Gettysburg Address: Lincoln's 1863 speech at Gettysburg cemetery dedication. Stressed equality, freedom, and Union preservation.

The Grandfather clause was a provision in Southern states' voting laws in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It allowed voting for individuals whose ancestors were eligible before the Civil War. It was used to disenfranchise African Americans.

Greenbacks: Paper currency issued by the US government during and after the Civil War, not backed by gold or silver, used to finance the war effort and stimulate the economy.

Habeas Corpus: Legal principle protecting individuals from unlawful detention, ensuring they are brought before a court to determine the legality of their imprisonment.

Harpers Ferry: Town in West Virginia known for John Brown's Raid in 1859, an unsuccessful attempt to seize a federal arsenal and arm enslaved individuals, contributing to tensions before the Civil War.

Jim Crow: Jim Crow refers to a system of racial segregation and discrimination that was prevalent in the United States, particularly in the South, from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. These laws enforced racial segregation in public facilities, such as schools, transportation, and restaurants, and denied African Americans their civil rights. The term "Jim Crow" originated from a minstrel show character that perpetuated racial stereotypes. The Jim Crow laws were eventually challenged and dismantled during the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s.

John Brown's Raid: AKA Raid on Harpers Ferry, was an attempted slave revolt led by abolitionist John Brown in 1859. Brown and a group of followers seized the federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia), with the intention of arming enslaved individuals and starting a rebellion against slavery. However, the raid was quickly suppressed by local militia and federal troops. John Brown was captured, tried, and executed for his role in the raid. This event further heightened tensions

Kansas-Nebraska Act: The Kansas-Nebraska Act was a law passed by Congress in 1854 that allowed the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery (popular sovereignty). This act effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery in territories north of the 36°30' parallel. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act intensified the sectional tensions between the North and the South, leading to violent conflicts in Kansas known as "Bleeding Kansas."

Ku Klux Klan: The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was a secret society founded in 1865 by white supremacists in the Southern United States. Initially, the KKK aimed to restore white supremacy and undermine the rights of newly freed African Americans during the Reconstruction era. They used violence, intimidation, and terrorism to suppress African American political and social advancement. The KKK experienced multiple resurgences throughout history, targeting various minority groups.

Lecompton Constitution: The Lecompton Constitution was a proposed pro-slavery constitution for the state of Kansas in 1857. It was drafted by pro-slavery supporters and protected the rights of slaveholders. However, the constitution was highly controversial because it did not allow for a popular vote on the issue of slavery. This led to widespread opposition from anti-slavery advocates, who viewed it as undemocratic. The Lecompton Constitution was ultimately rejected by Congress, contributing to the ongoing tensions between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in Kansas.

Lincoln-Douglas debates: The Lincoln-Douglas debates were a series of seven debates held in 1858 between Abraham Lincoln, a Republican candidate, and Stephen A. Douglas, a Democratic candidate, for the U.S. Senate seat in Illinois. The debates primarily focused on the issue of slavery and popular sovereignty. Lincoln argued against the expansion of slavery, emphasizing the immorality of the institution. Douglas, on the other hand, supported popular sovereignty, allowing each state or territory to decide the slavery question for itself. Although Lincoln lost the Senate race, the debates elevated his national profile and set the stage for his future political career, including his election as President in 1860.

Literacy Tests: Literacy tests were used in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a means to restrict voting rights, particularly targeting African Americans. These tests required individuals to demonstrate their ability to read and interpret complex texts before being allowed to vote. The intention behind these tests was to disenfranchise African Americans who had recently gained the right to vote through the 15th Amendment. The tests were often intentionally designed to be extremely difficult, with ambiguous questions and unfair grading, making it nearly impossible for African Americans to pass. Literacy tests were eventually outlawed with the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Manifest Destiny: Manifest Destiny was a belief prevalent in the 19th century among Americans that it was their divine mission to expand and settle across the entire North American continent. This ideology was fueled by a combination of religious, economic, and political motivations. Supporters of Manifest Destiny believed that it was the destiny of the United States to spread democracy, Christianity, and American values from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. This belief justified the annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the acquisition of vast territories such as Oregon, California, and the Southwest. However, Manifest Destiny also led to conflicts with Native American tribes and raised questions about the morality of westward expansion.

NYC Draft Riots: The NYC Draft Riots occurred in July 1863 during the American Civil War. The Union government had implemented a draft to conscript men into the military, which led to widespread discontent and opposition, particularly among working-class Irish immigrants in New York City. The riots were primarily fueled by economic and racial tensions, as many Irish immigrants feared that freed African Americans would compete for jobs and lower wages. The rioters targeted African Americans, abolitionists, and symbols of wealth and privilege. The violence lasted for several days and resulted in numerous deaths, injuries, and extensive property damage. The NYC Draft Riots highlighted the deep divisions and social unrest present in the United States during the Civil War.

Plessy v. Ferguson, a 1896 Supreme Court case, upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. Homer Plessy, an African American man, challenged segregated railroad cars. The Court ruled that segregation was constitutional if facilities were equal. This decision legitimized racial segregation and enabled Jim Crow laws, enforcing discrimination. In 1954, Brown v. Board of Education overturned the doctrine, leading to desegregation and the end of legal segregation.

Popular Sovereignty: Popular sovereignty is the principle that the authority of a government is derived from the consent of the people. In the context of American history, it refers to the idea that the residents of a territory or state should have the right to decide whether to allow slavery or not. This concept played a significant role in the lead-up to the American Civil War, particularly during the debates surrounding the expansion of slavery into new territories.

Radical Republicans: The Radical Republicans were a faction within the Republican Party during the Reconstruction era (1865-1877) in the United States. They advocated for a more aggressive approach to Reconstruction, seeking to ensure civil rights and voting rights for freed slaves. They pushed for the passage of laws and constitutional amendments that aimed to protect the rights of African Americans and punish former Confederate states. The Radical Republicans were influential in shaping the policies and legislation of the Reconstruction period.

Reconstruction Act: The Reconstruction Act was a series of laws passed by the U.S. Congress in 1867 that aimed to address the aftermath of the American Civil War and rebuild the Southern states that had seceded. The act divided the South into military districts and required the states to draft new constitutions that guaranteed African American suffrage and equal protection under the law. It also mandated that these states ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship and civil rights to African Americans. The Reconstruction Act was a significant step towards implementing the goals of the Radical Republicans during the Reconstruction era.

Republican Party: The Republican Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States. It was founded in the mid-1850s as a coalition of various anti-slavery groups and individuals. The party emerged as a major force in American politics during the 1860s and played a crucial role in the abolition of slavery and the preservation of the Union during the Civil War. Over time, the Republican Party has evolved and its platform has changed, but it has generally been associated with conservative and center-right policies, advocating for limited government, free-market principles, and individual liberties.

Scalawags were white Southern Republicans who supported the Republican Party and the rights of freed slaves during Reconstruction. They were seen as traitors by white Southerners who opposed Reconstruction.

Secession is when a state or group of states formally withdraws from a larger political entity. In the American context, it specifically refers to the Southern states seceding from the United States, leading to the Civil War. They seceded because they feared the erosion of their economic and social systems based on slavery.

Segregation is the enforced separation of different racial or ethnic groups, with one group being treated as inferior. In the American context, it primarily refers to the legally enforced racial segregation in the Southern states from the late 19th to mid-20th century. African Americans were subjected to inferior and unequal treatment.

"Separate But Equal" was a legal doctrine that emerged from Plessy v. Ferguson. It upheld racial segregation as long as separate facilities were provided and deemed equal. However, these facilities were almost always unequal in practice. The doctrine was overturned in Brown v. Board of Education, which declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

Sharecropping: Sharecropping was an agricultural system prevalent in the Southern United States after the Civil War. Under this system, landowners would provide land, tools, and supplies to farmers, who would then work the land and give a portion of their crops as rent. This arrangement often left sharecroppers in a cycle of debt and dependency on landowners.

Tammany Hall: Tammany Hall was a powerful political machine in New York City during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was associated with the Democratic Party and controlled local politics through patronage and corruption. Tammany Hall provided social services to immigrants and the urban poor, but its leaders were notorious for their involvement in bribery and political scandals.

Tenant Farming: Tenant farming refers to an agricultural system where farmers rent land from landowners and pay rent in the form of cash or a share of their crops. Unlike sharecropping, tenant farmers usually had more independence and control over their farming practices. However, they still faced challenges such as high rents and limited access to resources.

Ten Percent Plan: The Ten Percent Plan was a Reconstruction policy proposed by President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War. It offered a lenient path for Southern states to rejoin the Union. Under this plan, if 10% of a state's voting population pledged loyalty to the Union and accepted the abolition of slavery, the state could form a new government and be readmitted to the Union. The plan aimed to promote a quick and relatively smooth reunification of the country.

Tenure of Office Act: The Tenure of Office Act was a law passed by the United States Congress in 1867. It required Senate approval for the President to remove certain officeholders, including members of the President's Cabinet, without the Senate's consent. The act was primarily aimed at limiting the powers of President Andrew Johnson, who was at odds with the Radical Republicans in Congress during the Reconstruction era.

"Uncle Tom's Cabin": a novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe and published in 1852. It is a fictional story that depicts the harsh realities of slavery in the United States. The book had a significant impact on public opinion and is often credited with helping to fuel the abolitionist movement. It portrayed the cruelty and inhumanity of slavery, humanizing enslaved individuals and challenging the prevailing pro-slavery sentiments of the time.

Wade-Davis Bill: a proposed legislation introduced in 1864 by Radical Republicans in response to President Abraham Lincoln's more lenient Reconstruction policies. The bill required a majority of white male citizens in Confederate states to take an "ironclad oath" of allegiance to the Union before they could establish a new state government. It also called for more stringent conditions for readmission to the Union. However, Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill, as he favored a more moderate approach to Reconstruction.

Wilmot Proviso: a proposed amendment to a spending bill in 1846 that aimed to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico as a result of the Mexican-American War. The proviso was introduced by Congressman David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania. It sparked intense debates between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions, highlighting the growing sectional tensions over the issue of slavery in the United States. Although the Wilmot Proviso was never enacted into law, it played a significant role in shaping the national discourse on slavery and territorial expansion.

Important People/Groups

Harriet Beecher Stowe: Harriet Beecher Stowe was an American abolitionist and author who wrote the influential novel "Uncle Tom's Cabin." The book depicted the harsh realities of slavery and played a significant role in shaping public opinion and fueling the abolitionist movement during the Civil War era.

John Brown: John Brown was an abolitionist who believed in using armed insurrection to end slavery. He is most famous for leading a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in 1859. Although the raid failed, it heightened tensions between the North and South and is considered a precursor to the Civil War.

James Buchanan: James Buchanan was the 15th President of the United States, serving from 1857 to 1861. His presidency was marked by growing sectional tensions and the secession crisis. Buchanan's failure to effectively address these issues and prevent the outbreak of the Civil War has led to criticism of his leadership during this critical period.

Jefferson Davis: Jefferson Davis was an American politician who served as the President of the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. He played a central role in leading the Confederacy's fight for independence from the Union. After the war, Davis was imprisoned for two years and later became a symbol of the Lost Cause movement.

Frederick Douglass: Frederick Douglass was an African American social reformer, abolitionist, and writer. He escaped from slavery and became a prominent advocate for the abolition of slavery and equal rights for African Americans. Douglass played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and influencing policies during the Civil War and Reconstruction era.

Ulysses S. Grant: Ulysses S. Grant was a Union general during the Civil War and the 18th President of the United States. As a general, Grant led the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy, playing a significant role in the ultimate defeat of the Confederate forces. As president, Grant implemented Reconstruction policies aimed at protecting the rights of newly freed slaves and restoring the Union.

Rutherford B. Hayes: He was the 19th President of the United States and served from 1877 to 1881. During Reconstruction, Hayes pursued a policy of civil service reform and attempted to reconcile the divisions between North and South.

Sam Houston: He was a prominent political figure and military leader in Texas. Houston played a significant role in the Mexican-American War as the commander of the Texan army. He later served as the first and third President of the Republic of Texas.

Andrew Johnson: He was the 17th President of the United States and served from 1865 to 1869. Johnson's presidency was marked by his efforts to reconstruct the Southern states after the Civil War. However, his policies were met with opposition and controversy.

Robert E. Lee: He was a Confederate general during the American Civil War. Lee is best known for his leadership of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. His military strategies and tactics had a significant impact on the outcome of the war.

Abraham Lincoln: He was the 16th President of the United States and served from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln played a crucial role in leading the Union during the Civil War and is best known for issuing the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared slaves in Confederate territory to be free.

George McClellan: He was a Union general during the Civil War. McClellan commanded the Army of the Potomac and played a significant role in the early stages of the war. However, his cautious approach and reluctance to engage in decisive battles led to his removal from command.

James Polk: James Polk was the 11th President of the United States and served from 1845 to 1849. He played a significant role in the Mexican-American War, which resulted in the acquisition of vast territories in the southwest, including California and New Mexico.

Dred Scott: Dred Scott was an enslaved African American man who sued for his freedom in the famous Dred Scott v. Sandford case in 1857. The Supreme Court's decision in this case declared that enslaved individuals were property and not citizens, further deepening the divide between the North and the South on the issue of slavery.

William Seward: William Seward was a prominent politician and statesman who served as Secretary of State under President Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson. He played a crucial role in the acquisition of Alaska from Russia in 1867, known as "Seward's Folly."

William T. Sherman: William T. Sherman was a Union general during the American Civil War. He is best known for his "March to the Sea" campaign, where he led Union forces through Georgia, destroying infrastructure and resources to demoralize the Confederacy.

Edward Stanton: Edwin M. Stanton served as Secretary of War under President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War. He played a vital role in organizing the Union Army and implementing military strategies to defeat the Confederacy.

Samuel Tilden: Samuel Tilden was a prominent lawyer and politician who ran as the Democratic candidate for President in 1876. Although he won the popular vote, he lost the disputed election to Rutherford B. Hayes in a controversial compromise known as the Compromise of 1877.

William Marcy Tweed: William Marcy Tweed, also known as "Boss Tweed," was a corrupt politician and the leader of Tammany Hall, a political machine in New York City during the late 19th century. He was involved in widespread political corruption and embezzlement, leading to his eventual downfall and imprisonment.

David Wilmot: David Wilmot was a U.S. Congressman who proposed the Wilmot Proviso in 1846. The proviso sought to prohibit slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico during the Mexican-American War. It heightened tensions between the North and the South over the issue of slavery and became a significant factor leading to the Civil War.