Jewish & Early Christian Art (late imperial Rome)

Jewish and Early Christian Art

I.Narrative and Iconic Art 

Christian art depicts narrative and iconic pieces. The narrative refers to the biblical story, whereas the iconic refers to the meaning or symbolism— the ideal in which the narrative is supposed to represent through theological aspects and religious tradition. In the cubiculum of Leonis, for example, Peter represents the narrative, whilst Christ represents the Iconic. According to early christian tradition, Peter was recognized as the first bishop of Rome. Similarly, in the piece, Christ is accompanied by the Greek letters alpha and beta, which represent the beginning and end of time— reinforcing Christ’s overarching divinity. He is also depicted wearing a halo on his head, which was typically associated with Roman emperors. 

II. Understanding Abrahamic Religions 

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are abrahamic middle eastern religions that continue to dominate the contemporary world. They are all monotheistic, meaning that they worship one god as opposed to many as seen with hellenic paganism. The Jewish believe in the events of the old testament within the Hebrew bible, however, they reject Christ as their messiah and are still awaiting their messiah to this day. Christians, on the other hand, believe in the Christian bible and have accepted Christ — Jesus of Nazareth— as their messiah, hence believing in the Hebrew old testament and Christian new testament. Muslims, on the other hand, worship the Quran and acknowledge Mohhamed as their divine prophet, who was said to have existed six centuries after Jesus’ lifetime. 

III. Jewish Art and Religion 

Jewish Tradition: The Jewish people trace their origins to the Hebrews, a semitic people who lived in the city of Canaan, otherwise known as modern-day Palestine. According to the Torah (first 5 books of the Hebrew bible) God promised that Canaan would be a homeland for the Jewish people, where Moses led the enslaved Jewish people out of Egypt to the promised land of Canaan and climbed to Mount Sinai, where God bestowed the ten commandments (Jewish Laws) —- later preserved in the ark of the covenant. Historically, settlement in these lands likely occurred in the second century. 

Destruction of the temple: During the tenth century BCE, the Jewish King Solomon built a temple to house the ark of the covenant; which imported phoenician resources. The temple harbored courtyards, bronze pillars, and innermost chamber (Holy of Holies) housing the ark and its guardian angels. In 586 BCE, however, the Babylonians under King Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem and destroyed the temple, which was later rebuilt after Cyrus the Great invaded Babylon. Devastatingly, in 70 CE, the temple was destroyed and sacked under Titus; ultimately commemorated in the arch of Titus.  

IV.Synagogues 

A synagogue was a room where the Torah would be read and worshipped. It was also the site of communal gatherings. While they were originally segregated by gender, they were later joined. Many synagogues draw inspiration from Roman Basilicas —- which contained a central nave, column, and a Torah shrine. 

V.The Christian religion 

Introduction: At age 30, a Palestinian Jew named Jesus gathered a group of followers, who wrote accounts of his life and teachings (70-100 CE). Many of these recordings depict him performing miracles, healing, preaching, and rising from the dead —- written in the four gospels at the beginning of the New Testament; attributed to four evangelists (Mathhew, Mark, Luke, and John). The New Testament also includes the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles, 21 letters of advice and encouragement written to Christian communities in Greece, Asia Minor, and other parts of the Roman Empire. The final book is Revelation (or Apocalypse), a series of enigmatic visions and prophecies concerning the eventual triumph of God at the end of the world, written about 95 CE. 

Spread of Christianity: The imperial government formally recognized the religion in 313, and Christianity grew rapidly during the fourth century. Christian communities became organized by geographic units, or dioceses, along the lines of Roman provincial governments. Senior church officials called bishops served as governors of dioceses made up of smaller units known as parishes and headed by priests. A bishop’s church is a cathedral, a word derived from the Latin cathedra, which means “chair” but took on the meaning of “bishop’s throne.” Communal Christian worship focused on the ritual consumption of bread and wine, identified as the Body and Blood of Christ, which Jesus had inaugurated at the Last Supper, a Passover Seder meal with his disciples just before his crucifixion. Around these acts developed a complicated religious ceremony, or liturgy, called the Eucharist (also known as Holy Communion or the Mass).

VI.Christian Architecture

Introduction: After Constantine issued the edict of Milan, Christianity became more centralized. Art and architecture in relation to christianity began to prosper: philosophical systems were developed, pagan thought was incorporated into christianity, and church scholars — such as St. Jerome —-wrote translations of the bible from Hebrew to latin. Christians, when worshipping their god, gathered in large communions — leading to the evolution of new architectural projects in order to accommodate space. Christian activities included: member initiation, baptisms, burials, and private devotion. 

Old St. Peter’s Church: Constantine commissioned the church in order to commemorate the place where Peter was believed to have been buried. Old St. Peter’s included architectural elements in a longitudinal-plan arrangement that has characterized Christian basilican churches ever since.

Characteristics of christian churches: 

1. Designation → The Liturgical or administrative purpose. 

2. Dedication → Who the Church is dedicated to. (Christ, the virgin Mary, a Saint, or theological concept) 

3. Location → Location. 

Chapter 6 - Late Imperial Period (Early Christian) 

From Chapter 6, start with “The Tetrarchy” and read through the end of the chapter. For Chapter 7, start with the “Introduction” and stop reading before “Early Byzantine Art: The First Golden Age”(6.5, 7.1, 7.2)

Focused topic: Four Tetrarchs

Focused topic: Arch of Constantine

Focused topic: Old St. Peter’s Basilica

Focused topic: Church of Santa Sabina

Focused topic: Church of Santa Costanza

Focused topic: Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus

Guided Questions: 

Who was Diocletian and what was his contribution to the government of Rome?

• Dioceltan was a Roman emperor who restored Roman order after the 50 years of anarchy that followed the collapse of the Severan dynasty. He established the Tetrarchy —- dividing Rome into four regions overseen by corresponding rulers. 

Define tetrarchy.

• Governance through four joint rulers. 

What are the characteristics of portraiture during the Late Imperial period?

• During the late imperial period, art shifted from classicism and idealism to harsh geometric abstractions, likely derived from neoplatonic aesthetics. It focuses less on the individual and more so on the status or position of power they represent. 

Define porphyry.

• Poryphyr was a purple stone imported from Egypt that was specifically reserved for imperial use. 

Who was Constantine the Great?

• Constantine was the son of Constantius, who was one of the tetrarchs in the west. After Diocletan’s death, he fought Maxetnius at the battle of Milivan for dominance over Rome. He was known for legalizing Christianity and acknowledging it as an official religion. 

What event gave rise to Constantine the Great? When did it occur? How is the event significant to Christianity?

• According to Chjriostian tradition, Constantine was said to have had a vision the night before the battle of Mivilan, in which he saw a flaming cross, where a voice told him that under the sign of Christ, XP, he would emerge victorious. The next day, he ordered his men to claim  the sign, ultimately defeating Maxentius and becoming emperor of Rome. 

Define chi rho.

• The Roman symbols for christ (XP)

What is significant about the Edict of Milan?

• The Edict of Milan authorized religious freedom for all groups. 

How is the city of Byzantium significant to Constantine?

• During the later half of his reign, shortly before his death, Constanitne renamed Byzantium as “Constantinople” and made it his capital. 

What is an ancient Roman basilica?

• A large public building that served civic functions. 

Define diptych.

• A painting or altar piece that may be closed like a book. 

Who is considered to be the first Bishop of Rome?

• Peter is considered the first bishop of Rome, and is even a modern belief. 

What is the alpha and omega and how does it relate to Christian iconography?

• The Greek letters alpha and omega represent the beginning and end of time, symbolizing the everlasting nature of Christ. 

What features of late antique Jewish and Christian art and architecture derive from Roman conventions?

• Jewish and Christian art derived from the Roman tradition; 

What three religions arose in the Near East that still dominate the Western world today?

• The three dominant religions that arose in the Middle east, known as abrahamic religions, that are still dominant to this day, include: judaism, christianity, and Islam. The Jews believe in the events of the old testament, however, they do not accept Christ as their messiah and are still awaiting their messiah to this day. Christians believe in the events of both the old and new testament because they have accepted Christ as their messiah. Muslims believe that Muhahmed is their divine prophet. 

What are the books used by each religion?

• Judaism: Hebrew Bible 

• Christianity: Christian Bible 

• Islam: Qu’ran 

Who built the First Temple in Jerusalem and what did it house?

• In the tenth century BCE, the Jewish king Solomon built a temple in Jerusalem to house the ark of the covenant —- the legendary commandments granted to Moses by God— where he acquired resources from phoenicia and constructed the first temple, courtyards, bronze pillars, and the “Holy of Holies” which was the innermost chamber containing the ark of the covenant. 

What is a synagogue?

• A synagogue is a room here the Torah, or old testament scrolls, can be worshipped with one’s community. Many early synagogues were segregated by gender, however, as time went on, this practice was later abolished. Many synagogues contain religious art and mosaics drawn from the Roman tradition. 

When was the story of Jesus’s life and collections of his teachings recorded?

• Jesus was a palestinian man, or in other words, Jewish. Many of his teachings were recorded by his followers (70– 100CE); who credited him with performing miracles such as healing, reaching, and rising from the dead. Many of his teachings focus on benevolence, piety, social justice, and forgiving sins. 

Who are the four evangelists?

• The four evangelists are Matthe, Mark, Luke, and John. 

When was Christianity officially recognized as a religion by the Romans?

• Christianity was legalized religion by the Romans during the reign of Constantine, who issued the Edict of Milan, allowing for authority of religious freedom. It was officially recognized as a religion in 380 CE under Theodosius. 

Define Eucharist.

• A liturgy is a religious ceremony (called a eucharist) It refers to communion or mass.

Where did early Christians worship?

• Early Christians gathered to worship in private apartments or houses, however, soon transitioned to churches and monasteries as the religion grew. 

Define orant.

• An orant figure is a figure who’s posture is in prayer, they can be associated ith an religion — pagan or monotheistic. 

What is the difference between a longitudinal-planned building versus a centrally-planned structure?

Study the architectural terms for both the ground plan and elevation of Old St. Peter’s Basilica.

Define spolia.

• Repurposed stones taken from an old structure 

Define ambulatory.

• A place for walking. 

Define sarcophagus.

• A stone coffin that may be adorned with a sculpture or inscription 

________________________________________________________________________________

Portraits of The Four Tetrarchs 

How did the sculpture end up in Venice?

• They were originally part of a larger monument in Constantinople, however, they were looted, or stolen, by Venetian forces during the fourth crusade and brought back to Venice as war spoils. The tetrarchs are not Byzantine or Christian, they originate from the last phase of polytheistic Roman culture. 

What is the difference between an Augustus and a Caesar?

• The Augustus were the senior emperors, while the Caesars were the junior emperors. 

How are these portraits differ from earlier portraits of Roman Emperors?

• It is likely that the four figures represent the tetrarchs —-- not seen as individuals, but as collective units. Essentially, their individuality is reduced to their status as rulers as opposed to earlier idealized portraits of Roman Emperors. Their bodies, statures, and faces are all nearly identical. They are more geometric and rigid as opposed to harmonic movement during earlier periods — representing a rejection of naturalism. 

What is significant about the medium?

• The tetrarchs were made using porphyry, a purple stone imported from Egypt that was typically reserved for imperial use. Unlike marble, it was harder to sculpt; though this was likely an artistic decision — representing valor, unity, and harmony in their solidity and proximity. They establish a sense of militarism and solidarity. 

How can we interpret the poses of the four men?

• They establish a sense of militarism and solidarity. Their proportions are not natural —- large heads, narrow shoulders; bordering on the beginning of the christian period. 

Arch of Constantine 

Why were arches built in Rome?

• Roman arches were built to celebrate monumental military victories. (Arch of Titus representing the sacking of Jerusalem, Arch of Constantine representing the battle of milivan, etc.)

How does the Arch of Constantine differ from previous arches?

•  The arch of Constantine is the first that celebrates victory, not against a foreign power, but against a Roman rival. 

What emperors’ sculptures were used on the Arch of Constantine?

• Many of the sculptures and relief figures found on the arch are not from Constantine's Time, they date back to previous emperors such as Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius —- three of the five good emperors. 

Why did Constantine use other emperors’ sculptures?

• He likely used other emperors' sculptures in order to associate himself with their status and prosperous rule. 

What is high-relief sculpture?

• A type of sculpture where the figures project from the background. Many of the figures stand in contrapposto; representing 3-d naturalism. Many depict sacrifices to deities such as Diana and Apollo— representing idealism. 

What is a roundel?

• Scenes set in round frames —- they come from monuments relating to Hadrian. 

Who was the head of the state religion in Rome?

• The emperor was traditionally the head of the state’s religion. 

What sculptural elements date to the age of Constantine?

• Horizontal bands that wrap around the entire arch, narrating the story of Constantine’s battle against Maxentius. 

What event leads to Constantine ruling all of the Roman Emperor?

• The victory against Maxentius (co-ruler of the West) at the Milvian bridge; where Constantine emerges victorious; becoming the ruler of the West. 

What are the stylistic differences between the Constantinian reliefs opposed to those from the earlier emperors?

• Constantine: squat, rigid figures → interpreted as the decline of artistic sculptors; valued for clarity; associated with early christian art. 

• Marcus aurelius: idealism, realistic proportions, etc. 

How is Christian art meant to function?

• Meant to function symbolically as opposed to stylistically — emphasize clarity. 

Architecture and Liturgy 

What is the “Holy of Holies”?

• This was the innermost chamber of the temple in Jerusalem which contained, or housed, the ark of the covenant. 

What elements made up of Temple liturgy?

• The liturgy of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem included rituals such as animal sacrifices, incense offerings, psalm chanting, and prayers conducted by priests. Key elements included the Menorah (golden lampstand), the Altar of Burnt Offerings, and the Holy of Holies, where only the high priest could enter on Yom Kippur.

What was the basis of how the Early Christians worship?

• Early Christian worship was based on Jewish synagogue practices, including scripture readings, prayers, and hymns, combined with the Eucharist (Communion), which was inspired by Jesus’ Last Supper. Worship took place in private homes (house churches) before Christianity became legalized.

What architectural form did Constantine use as the foundation of the first Christian churches?

• Constantine used the Roman basilica as the model for the first Christian churches.
  
  

Why was it a suitable architectural form for the Christians?

• The Roman basilica was a large, open structure used for civic gatherings, making it an ideal space for Christian congregations. Unlike pagan temples, which housed cult statues, basilicas allowed for communal worship, processions, and the performance of the Eucharist.

What is an ambo?

• An ambo is a raised platform or pulpit in a church from which scripture readings, sermons, and chants were delivered. It played a significant role in Early Christian and Byzantine worship.

Where are the altars typically located in Early Christian basilicas?

• In Early Christian basilicas, the altar was typically located in the apse, the semi-circular recess at the eastern end of the church, often placed on a raised platform to signify its importance.