Ch. 11: Mediterranean Society

1. Rome’s Mythological Founding - Romulus & Remus

   • Flight of Aeneas, a refugee from Troy who migrated to Italy when Greek invaders destroyed his native land

     • Descendants: Romulus & Remus (Twins)

   • She-wolf found them and nursed them to health

   • Romulus founded the city of Rome and established himself as its first king

2. Feature of Geography (what was better than Greece?)

   Geographic Feature	Effect on Development
   Central location of the Italian Peninsula on the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas	Helped Romans expand their influence and used the sea for trade and conquest
   Rome is located south of the Alps Mountain Range	Blocks cold wind and gives Rome a pleasant climate. However, the Alps offer limited protection
   Rome was built on the Tiber River and is located south of the Po River	The Po River provides water for the rich farming region of the northern plain
   Apennines mountains less rugged than mountains in Greece	The Apennines were a less serious threat to unity in Italy, so Italy was not broken up into independent city-states
   Fertile, flat plains located in the north and west of the Italian peninsula	The land was suitable for agriculture, supporting a growing population

3. Influence of the Latins, Greeks, and Etruscans

   • Latins: Roman ancestors

   • Etruscans:/Greek

     • Alphabet (Greeks —> Etruscans)

     • Arch (E)

     • Engineering techniques (E)

     • Etruscan + Greek gods and goddesses + Roman deities

     • Built fortified cities (G)

     • Grow grapes/olives (G)

4. Political structure of the Roman Republic (know the roles of consuls, the Senate, the Assembly, tribunes, & dictators)

   • Consuls:

     • 2

     • elected by the assembly for one year

     • chief executives of the government

     • commanders-in-chief of the army

   • Senate:

     • 300 members

     • Chosen from Aristocracy

     • For life

     • controls foreign and financial policies, advises consuls

   • The Assembly:

     • Centuriate Assembly

       • members for life

       • selects consuls

       • makes laws

     • Tribal Assembly

       • citizens grouped according to where they live

       • members for life

       • elects tribunes: representatives of plebeians

       • makes laws

   • Dictator:

     • A leader who had absolute power to make laws and command the army

5. Why was there conflict between patricians and plebeians?

   • Patricians held more power over Plebeians and manipulated laws to their advantage

6. What was the significance of the Law of the 12 Tables?

   • Written law code - prevented patrician officials to interpret the law to suit themselves

7. Expansion of the Republic - Punic Wars

   • Romans v.s Carthage

     • Economic competition: Sicily, the most important source of grain (W Mediterranean)

     • Supremacy in the region

     • burned Carthage, destroying them

   • —> Romans became the dominant power in the W Mediterranean region

8. How did imperial expansion lead to domestic problems? (Latifundia)

   • Wide gap between the rich and the poor:

     • Grain prices declined —> Grain was given to Rome from conquered territories as tribute. Surplus drove prices down, hurting small farmers, resulting in them selling their land to pay debts

     • Treasure —> Some Romans grew rich from booty and increased trade in luxury goods. These rich people bought up land from small farmers and created large estates called latifundia, and used slaves for cheap labor. Small farmers could not compete and many lost their land

     • Urban Poor increases —> poor landless farmers (some previously roman soldiers) moved to the city and joined the other unemployed poor people in the capital

   • Changes in the Roman Army

     • Generals began recruiting soldiers from the landless poor. These soldiers fought for pay and owed their loyalty only to their commanders

       • Made it possible for an ambitious politician to be supported by his own troops and take complete control of Rome in its weakened state

     • Generals began fighting each other for power (Civil Wars)

9. Who were the Gracchi brothers? Compare to Wang Mang

   • chief proponents of social reform who, like Wang Mang, tried to limit the amount of conquered land someone could hold. They had little success.

10. Civil wars - Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla

    • Marius: advocated social reform

    • Sulla: allied with conservatives and aristocrats

11. Julius Caesar - Accomplishments and Assassination

    • Accomplishments:

      • Success at Gaul (became popular)

      • Reforms

        • granted Roman citizenship

        • added friends/supporters from Italy & other regions

        • helped poor by creating jobs

        • started colonies where people without land could own property

        • increased pay for soldiers

    • Assassination:

      • Caesar was stabbed to death in the Senate Chamber by a faction of Senators who were getting scared of his powers

12. Mark Antony & Cleopatra

    • Cleopatra and Julius had a son named Caesarion

    • Mark Antony (Julius’s pupil/protege) marries Cleopatra after Julius dies, but they are both killed by Octavian (Julius’s grandnephew)

13. Augustus Caesar - Administration “A monarchy disguised as a Republic”

    • Octavian becomes the sole ruler of Rome and is named Augustus (“exalted one”)

    • Accumulated power and held responsibility for all important government functions, basically making himself Emperor (“A monarchy disguised as a Republic”)

14. Pax Romana - Roman roads, sea lanes (“Mare Nostrum”), Roman law, Engineering (aqueducts, concrete, Coliseum)

    • Roman Golden Age

      • Provinces with own local government

      • Civil Service - paid government workers (Bureaucracy)

      • Coined money

      • Roads

        • Original purpose: troop movement/communication

        • Later purpose: trade

      • Aqueducts: Water passages used to bring water to the cities

      • Colosseum: public entertainment

15. Roman Society - Paterfamilias, compare the lives of the rich/poor, slavery, and the role of women in Ancient Rome (compared to Greece)

    • Paterfamilias:

      • Father of the family

      • all decisions for the family

      • can kill/sell a family member

    • Patricians:

      • run government

      • Aristocrats: born into their power

    • Plebeians:

      • common people

    • Slaves:

      • Prisoners of War

      • people in debt

    • Women:

      • Women in Ancient Rome had more power than Greek women and were citizens with the right to own property and testify in court. They often advised their husbands on politics and business

16. Influence of Greek philosophy - Stoicism

    • Cicero: Persuasive orator and writer who contributed to making Stoicism one of the most prominent philosophies in Rome

    • Appealed to Roman intellectuals

    • moral thought

17. Religion - Roman deities, state cults, Religions of Salvation (Mithraism, cult of Isis, Essenes, Christians)

    • Religions that were believed to bring salvation to its followers

    • Mithraism:

      • Persian deity Mithras: strength, courage, and discipline

      • popular in Roman armed forces

      • moral behavior

      • male populations

    • State cults:

      • cults where the empire/state would deem the Emperor as a god or divine being

    • Cult of Isis:

      • Men & Women

      • benevolent and protective deity

      • Egyptian goddess Isis

    • Christianity

      • Yahweh (Jewish God)

      • monotheistic

      • persecuted in the early days

      • most popular religion

18. Christianity - Jesus of Nazareth, Disciples, Gospels, Paul of Tarsus, persecution of Christians, Emperor Constantine, Edict of Milan, Emperor Diocletian

    • Jesus of Nazareth

      • Bethlehem

      • Jewish teacher who taught devotion to God

      • was thought that he was the Son of God

      • Crucified

    • Disciples: Jesus’s followers/students

    • Paul of Tarsus:

      • preacher

      • doctrine called for individuals to observe high moral standards and to place their faith ahead of personal and family interests

    • Persecution of Christians was very common due to rejection in participation in state cults, which was considered blasphemous

    • Emperor Constantine:

      • Passed Edict of Milan (Christianity shall be tolerated in the Roman Empire

      • Reunited Empire under his rule

      • Converted to Christianity

    • Emperor Diocletian:

      • persecuted Christians harshly - seen as scapegoats for internal problems

      • Divided the empire into 2 halves

        • ruled by 2 co-emperors with 2 powerful lieutenants

        • lived on the richer side (Eastern Roman Empire)

Chapter 11 Outline:

1. From kingdom to republic

   1. The Etruscans and Rome

      1. Romulus and Remus: legendary twins rescued by a she-wolf; founded Rome in 753 B.C.E.

      2. The Etruscans dominated Italy in the eighth to fifth centuries B.C.E.

      3. The kingdom of Rome was on the Tiber River

   2. The Roman republic and its constitution

      1. Establishment of the republic

         1. Rome nobility deposed the last Etruscan king in 509 B.C.E.

         2. Republican constitution included two consuls: civil and military

         3. An assembly dominated by the patricians elected consuls

         4. Senate advised the consuls and ratified major decisions

         5. Both Senate and consuls represented the interests of the patricians

      2. Conflicts between patricians and plebeians

         1. Patricians granted plebeians the tribunes

         2. Tribunes' power to intervene and veto decisions

         3. Plebeians' tribunes dominated Roman politics, early third century B.C.E.

   3. The expansion of the republic

      1. Rome consolidated its position in Italy, fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E.

      2. Conflict with Carthage (Punic Wars) and Hellenistic realms

      3. Rome became preeminent power in eastern and western Mediterranean

2. From republic to empire

   1. Imperial expansion and domestic problems

      1. The Gracchi brothers supported land redistribution; both were assassinated

      2. Military commanders recruited rural and urban poor--intensely loyal armies

         1. Gaius Marius: general who advocated land redistribution

         2. Conservative aristocratic class supported general Lucius Cornelius Sulla

      3. Civil war

   2. The foundation of empire

      1. Julius Caesar: very popular social reformer and conqueror (Gaul)

         1. Seized Rome in 49 B.C.E.

         2. Claimed the title "dictator for life," 46 B.C.E.

         3. Social reforms and centralized control

         4. Assassinated in 44 B.C.E.

      2. Octavion brought civil conflict to an end

         1. Senate bestowed title "Augustus", 27 B.C.E.

         2. Monarchy disguised as a republic

         3. Created a new standing army under his control

         4. The imperial institutions began to take root

   3. Continuing expansion and integration of the empire

      1. Roman expansion into Mediterranean basin, western Europe, down Nile to Kush

      2. Pax romana, Roman Peace, for two and a half centuries

      3. Well-engineered Roman roads; postal system

      4. Roman law--tradition: twelve tables (450 B.C.E.)

3. Economy and society in the Roman Mediterranean

   1. Trade and urbanization

      1. Owners of latifundia focused on specialized production for export

      2. Mediterranean trade

         1. Sea lanes linked ports of the Mediterranean

         2. Roman navy kept the seas largely free of pirates

         3. The Mediterranean became a Roman lake

      3. The city of Rome

         1. Wealth of the city fueled its urban development

         2. Statues, pools, fountains, arches, temples, stadiums

         3. First use of concrete as construction material

         4. Rome attracted numerous immigrants

         5. Attractions: baths, pools, gymnasia, circuses, stadiums, amphitheaters

   2. Family and society in Roman times

      1. The pater familias--eldest male of the family ruled

         1. Women wielded considerable influence within their families

         2. Many women supervised family business and wealthy estates

      2. Wealth and social change

         1. Newly rich classes built palatial houses and threw lavish banquets

         2. Cultivators and urban masses lived at subsistence level

         3. Poor classes became a serious problem in Rome and other cities

         4. No urban policy developed, only "bread and circuses"

      3. Slavery--one-third of the population

         1. Spartacus's uprising in 73 B.C.E.

         2. Urban slaves saw better conditions and possibility of manumission

4. The cosmopolitan Mediterranean

   1. Greek philosophy and religions of salvation

      1. Roman deities: gods, goddesses, and household gods

      2. Greek influence--Stoicism

         1. Appealed to Roman intellectuals

         2. Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) persuasive orator and writer on Stoicism

      3. Religions of salvation gave sense of purpose and promised afterlife

         1. Roman roads served as highways for religious spread

         2. Mithraism was popular with Roman soldiers--men only

         3. Cult of Isis very popular

   2. Judaism and early Christianity

      1. Monotheistic Jews considered state cults to be blasphemy

      2. The Essenes, sect of Judaism; Dead Sea Scrolls

      3. Jesus of Nazareth

         1. Charismatic Jewish teacher, taught devotion to God and love for human beings

         2. Attracted large crowds through his wisdom and miraculous powers

         3. The teaching "the kingdom of God is at hand" alarmed the Romans

         4. Crucifixion in early 30s C.E.

         5. Became "Christ," or "the anointed one"

      4. The New Testament and the Old Testament became the holy book of Christianity

      5. Paul of Tarsus was principle figure in spread of Christianity

      6. Rapid growth of early Christianity

         1. Strong appeal to lower classes, urban population, and women

         2. Became the most influential faith in the Mediterranean by the third century C.E.

Ch. 12: Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads

1. Zhang Qian and the opening of the Silk Road trade

2. What developments minimized the risk associated with travel & long-distance trade in the Classical era?

   • Construction of roads and bridges, large imperial states bordered one another

3. How did the Seleucids and Ptolemies each promote the growth of long-distance trade?

4. Why was knowledge of the monsoon wind patterns essential to maritime trade in the Classical period?

   • The monsoon winds helped mariners sail safely and reliably in the Indian Ocean and facilitated trade by assisting sailors to reach distant ports

5. Know the essential products exchanged along the trade networks discussed in the chapter.

   • India:

     • Spices, pepper, cosmetics, gems, cotton textiles, ivory

   • Persia & Egypt:

     • Grains

   • Mediterranean Basin:

     • Wine, olive oil, jewelry, glassware, artworks, gold and silver, perfumes, pottery, woolen and linen textiles

   • Throughout the Mediterranean:

     • Slaves

   • Southern Arabia and E. Mediterranean

     • Iron goods (spears, axes, knives)

   • Rhapta (E. Africa):

     • Ivory, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, slaves

   • China:

     • Silk, ginger, cinnamon

   • Southeast Asia:

     • Spices (cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon)

   • Central Asia:

     • Horses, Jade

   • Arabia:

     • Sesame oil

6. Know the role that key empires played in expanding the scope of long-distance trade (Romans, Parthians, Kushan, and Han)

7. Be familiar with the extent of the land & sea routes known collectively as the Silk Roads.

8. Why were silks and spices essential commodities in classical times?

   • They were used by the elites/nobles (Patricians) and were considered a luxury item

9. Why were oasis towns along the Silk Road considered cosmopolitan centers? What role did merchants, oasis towns, monasteries, and missionaries play in the spread of Buddhism?

   • Since they heavily depended on trade, they allowed foreigners and merchants. Following that, cultural diffusion took place and different ideas/religions were introduced to these oasis towns, which played in the spread of many religions including Buddhism

10. Why did rulers of Southeast Asian states adopt elements of Buddhism or Hinduism?

    • Rulers of Southeast Asian states adopted elements of Buddhism or Hinduism for political legitimacy, cultural influence, trade relations, and social cohesion.

11. Trace the spread of Christianity (Where and how did it spread?)

    • Christianity spread in the Classical Era primarily through the Roman Empire, trade routes, and missionary activities. Key cities like Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch played significant roles in its dissemination.

12. Gregory the Wonderworker

    • Missionary who performed miracles

    • Popularized Christianity in the Roman Empire

13. How did Indian traditions inspire Christians in Southwest Asia?

    • Indian traditions such as ascetic methods inspired Christians in Southwest Asia and influenced them to also follow ascetic regimes. They abstained from sexual contact, refused fine foods and other comforts, and sometimes even withdrew from family life and society.

14. Who were the Nestorians? How did they differ from the Mediterranean Christians? How did they contribute to the spread of Christianity?

    • Followers of the Greek theologian Nestorius

    • They differed from the Mediterranean Christians because they emphasized the human as opposed to the divine nature of Jesus

    • They contributed to the spread of Christianity because their beliefs spread to established communities in Central Asia, India, and China

15. How did long-distance trade contribute to the spread of epidemic disease? How was it affected by the spread of epidemic disease?

    • Long-distance trade contributed to the spread of epidemic diseases because as merchants traveled around, they spread it into that area, spreading the epidemic/disease there

    • Trade declined for a little bit but picked back up

16. Compare and contrast the collapse of the Han dynasty with the fall of the Roman Empire

    • Both faced internal strife, external invasions, and economic issues. The Han dynasty collapsed due to political corruption and peasant uprisings, while the Roman Empire fell due to barbarian invasions and economic decline. The Han dynasty's collapse led to regional fragmentation, while the fall of the Roman Empire resulted in the rise of feudalism in Europe.

Chapter 12 Outline:

1. Long-distance trade and the Silk Roads network

   1. Zhang Qian's mission to the west

      1. Held by Xiongnu for years

      2. Told Han Wudi of possibility of establishing trade relations to Bactria

      3. Han Wudi subdued Xiongnu, opening up region to safe trade routes

   2. Trade networks of the Hellenistic era

      1. Important developments of the classical era that reduced risks

         1. Rulers invested in constructing roads and bridges

         2. Large empires expanded until borders were closer

      2. Trade networks of the Hellenistic world

         1. Exchanges between India/Bactria in east and Mediterranean basin in west

         2. Ptolemies learned about the monsoon system in Indian Ocean

         3. Maritime trade included East Africa--Rhapta

   3. The silk roads

      1. Trade routes

         1. Overland trade routes linked China to Roman empire

         2. Sea lanes joined Asia, Africa, and Mediterranean basin into one network

      2. Trade goods

         1. Silk and spices traveled west

         2. Central Asia produced large horses and jade, sold in China

         3. Roman empire provided glassware, jewelry, artworks, perfumes, textiles

      3. The organization of long-distance trade

         1. Merchants of different regions handled long-distance trade in stages

         2. On the seas, long-distance trade was dominated by different empires

2. Cultural and biological exchanges along the silk roads

   1. The spread of Buddhism and Hinduism

      1. Buddhism in central Asia and China

         1. First present in oasis towns of central Asia along silk roads

         2. Further spread to steppe lands

         3. Foreign merchants as Buddhists in China, first century B.C.E.

         4. Popularity of monasteries and missionaries, fifth century C.E.

      2. Buddhism and Hinduism in Southeast Asia

   2. The spread of Christianity

      1. Christianity in the Mediterranean basin

         1. Missionaries, like Gregory the Wonderworker, attracted converts

         2. Christian communities flourished in Mediterranean basin by late third century C.E.

      2. Christianity in Southwest Asia follows the trade routes

         1. Sizable communities in Mesopotamia and Iran, second century C.E.

         2. Sizable number of converts in southwest Asia until the seventh century C.E.

         3. Their ascetic practices influenced Christian practices in the Roman empire

         4. Nestorians emphasized human nature of Jesus, fifth century C.E.

         5. Nestorian communities in central Asia, India, and China by seventh century C.E.

   3. The spread of Manichaeism; best example of religion spread on silk roads

      1. Mani and Manichaeism

         1. Prophet Mani, a Zoroastrian, drew influence from Christianity and Buddhism

         2. Dualism: perceived a cosmic struggle between light and darkness, good and evil

         3. Offered means to achieve personal salvation

         4. Ascetic lifestyle and high ethical standards

         5. Differentiation between the "elect" and the "hearers"

      2. Spread of Manichaeism; appealed to merchants

         1. Attracted converts first in Mesopotamia and east Mediterranean region

         2. Appeared in all large cities of Roman empire, third century C.E.

      3. Persecuted by Sasanids and Romans but survived in central Asia

   4. The spread of epidemic disease

      1. Epidemic diseases

         1. Common epidemics in Rome and China: smallpox, measles, bubonic plague

         2. Roman Empire: population dropped by a quarter from the first to tenth century C.E.

         3. China: population dropped by a quarter from the first to seventh century C.E.

      2. Effects of epidemic diseases

         1. Both Chinese and Roman economies contracted

         2. Small regional economies emerged

         3. Epidemics weakened Han and Roman empires

3. China after the Han dynasty

   1. Internal decay of the Han state

      1. Problems of factions and land distribution led to rebellions

      2. Generals usurped political authority; the emperor became a puppet

         1. By 220 C.E., generals abolished the Han and divided the empire into three kingdoms

         2. Nomadic peoples came in; China became even more divided for 350 years

   2. Cultural change in post-Han China

      1. Gradual sinicization of nomadic peoples

      2. Withering of Confucianism in light of political instability

      3. Popularity of Buddhism; nomadic rulers embraced it

4. The fall of the Roman empire

   1. Internal decay in the Roman empire

      1. The barracks emperors: series of generals seizing throne (235-284 C.E.

      2. The emperor Diocletian (284-305 C.E.)

         1. Divided the empire into two administrative districts

         2. A co-emperor ruled each district with the aid of a powerful lieutenant

      3. The emperor Constantine and new capital Constantinople

   2. Germanic invasions and the fall of the western Roman empire

      1. Germanic migrations from northern Europe to eastern and northern part of Roman empire

         1. Visigoths--settled agriculturalists; adopted Roman law and Christianity

         2. Roman authorities kept Germanic peoples on the borders as a buffer

      2. The Huns under Attila attacked Europe mid-fifth century C.E.

      3. The collapse of the western Roman empire

         1. Under the Huns' pressure, Germanic peoples streamed into the Roman empire

         2. Established settlements in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and north Africa

         3. Germanic general Odovacer deposed the Roman emperor, 476 C.E.

         4. Imperial authority survived in the eastern half of the empire

   3. Cultural change in the late Roman empire

      1. Christianity most prominent survivor of the collapse of the empire

         1. With Constantine's Edict of Milan, Christianity became a legitimate religion, 313 C.E.

         2. Emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the official religion, 380 C.E.

         3. St. Augustine harmonized Christianity with Platonic thought

      2. The Church became increasingly institutionalized

         1. Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians

         2. Established standardized hierarchy of church officials

         3. The bishop of Rome, known as the pope, became spiritual leader

         4. As Roman empire collapsed, Christianity served as a cultural foundation