Overview of the Great Depression

• The Great Depression began with a dramatic crash in the U.S. stock market in October 1929 and persisted for a decade, indicating a potential failure of Western capitalism as suggested by Marx.

• Economic impacts were devastating globally, with significant losses in personal and corporate wealth, widespread bank failures, reduced investment, plummeting trade, business closures, and soaring unemployment across the industrialized capitalist world.

Economic Conditions and Responses

• Originated in the United States during the late 1920s after a period of economic boom; excessive production and speculative stock market activities led to an unsustainable economic bubble.

• The crash affected global economies due to interconnected trade, debt, and investment, spreading the depression across industrialized Europe and impacting export-dependent regions and colonies.

• Regions dependent on single commodities, like Southeast Asia (rubber) and Ghana (cocoa), faced severe economic hardships due to collapsing global demand and commodity prices.

• Many governments, particularly in Latin America, adopted import substitution policies to focus more on domestic markets rather than exports.

Political and Social Repercussions

• The economic crisis led to reevaluation of economic policies, with some countries considering socialist models seen in the Soviet Union, which appeared to avoid such economic issues during the 1930s.

• In Mexico, President Lázaro Cárdenas revitalized principles of the Mexican Revolution, promoting national over foreign interests and implementing significant social reforms including land and industry nationalization.

• In industrialized countries, the crisis energized movements towards democratic socialism, advocating for stronger economic regulation and wealth distribution, which influenced policies in Britain, France, and Scandinavia.

U.S. Response: The New Deal

• President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal was a series of programs and reforms designed to counter the effects of the Depression in the United States, enhancing the role of the federal government in the economy.

• The New Deal included public works projects, economic reforms, support for labor unions, and the establishment of welfare programs, although it was ultimately World War II’s economic demands that significantly alleviated the Depression’s effects.

• Contrary to the democratic responses, Nazi Germany and militaristic Japan emerged from the Depression through aggressive policies and rearmament, setting the stage for their roles in World War II.

Impact on Global Politics

• The Depression influenced global politics by undermining faith in capitalism and enhancing the appeal of alternative economic models, which contributed to political shifts and the rise of totalitarian regimes in some countries.

• The economic strain and subsequent political shifts set the context for World War II, demonstrating the interlinked nature of economic policies and international conflict.

European Fascism

Overview of Challenges to Democratic Ideals Post-World War I

• Following World War I, democratic ideals and cultural values of individual freedom championed by victorious nations like Britain, France, and the U.S. faced significant opposition.

• The challenge arose primarily from communism, notably initiated in Russia during the 1917 revolution, and from authoritarian, nationalistic regimes in Italy, Germany, and Japan during the 1920s and 1930s.

Emergence and Ideology of Fascism

• Fascism emerged as a distinct ideology between 1919 and 1945, particularly in Europe, positioning itself against communism and advocating for national conflict as a historical driver, unlike communism’s focus on class struggle.

• Characterized by intense nationalism, the glorification of violence, disdain for individualism, liberalism, and democracy, fascism appealed to various societal groups disillusioned by the aftermath of World War I and the perceived failures of democratic capitalism.

Social and Political Context Leading to Fascism

• Post-World War I economic devastation, social unrest, and the rise of socialism and communism created a fertile ground for fascist ideologies.

• Fascism attracted support across social classes, including middle and upper classes threatened by socialism, small merchants fearing big business, demobilized soldiers, and intellectuals disillusioned with modern life.

Establishment of Fascist Regimes in Italy and Germany

• Italy and Germany became the principal theaters for powerful and enduring fascist regimes, profoundly impacting Europe and global history.

• In Italy, discontent post-World War I, coupled with economic downturns and socialist threats, set the stage for Benito Mussolini's rise to power in 1922 with his "Black Shirts" army, promising stability, order, and traditional social hierarchies.

Mussolini’s Fascist Italy

• Mussolini’s government, established in a violent takeover, was fundamentally anticommunist and antidemocratic, envisioning the state as an absolute entity embodying the nation's spirit.

• Suspended democratic processes, suppressed opposition through imprisonment or execution, disbanded independent unions and political parties, and controlled economic policies through a state-supervised corporate system.

• Culturally, Mussolini’s regime promoted traditional values, particularly through agreements with the Catholic Church and propaganda emphasizing women’s roles as mothers within a nationalist framework.

• Mussolini's expansionist military actions, such as the invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, were portrayed as revivals of the Roman Empire, aiming to reassert Italian vitality and global stature.

Broader Impact and Alignment with Other Powers

• By 1936-1937, Italy aligned with Germany and Japan against the Soviet Union and communism, forming the Axis powers by 1940, which directly contributed to the onset of World War II due to their territorial ambitions and ideological conflicts.

Hitler and the Nazis

Nazi Germany's Rise and Ideology

• Similarities with Italian Fascism: Like its Italian counterpart, the Nazi Party in Germany was marked by extreme nationalism, advocacy of violence, dictatorship under a charismatic leader, and a strong opposition to democracy and communism.

• Conditions Favoring Nazis: Post-World War I dissatisfaction, especially resentment over the Treaty of Versailles, combined with the economic collapse during the Great Depression, created a fertile ground for Nazi ideology. These conditions mirrored those in Italy but had distinct national characteristics in Germany.

Ascendancy of the Nazi Party

• Election Success: The Nazi Party capitalized on Germany's economic hardships and societal fears of communism, gaining significant electoral success with 37% of the vote in 1932. This led to Hitler's appointment as Chancellor in 1933.

• Democratic Collapse: The frail democratic government of Germany, which had not garnered broad support, succumbed to the Nazis, transforming the political landscape into the totalitarian Third Reich.

Consolidation of Power

• Elimination of Opposition: Immediately after coming to power, Hitler abolished all other political parties and independent labor unions, and initiated a large-scale arrest of political opponents.

• Media and Propaganda Control: The regime took control of media outlets, including press and radio, to propagate Nazi ideologies and suppress dissent.

Economic Recovery and Public Works

• Public Spending: The Nazi government's massive public spending on infrastructure and military rearmament significantly reduced unemployment from 6.2 million in 1932 to fewer than 500,000 by 1937.

• Labor Shortages: By 1939, due to extensive rearmament and infrastructure projects, Germany faced labor shortages, marking a drastic turnaround from the high unemployment rates during the Depression.

Social Policies and Popularity

• Appeal to Traditional Values: The Nazis appealed to rural and traditional German values, which many citizens felt were threatened by modernization and foreign influences.

• Anti-Semitism as Policy: Central to Nazi ideology was a virulent anti-Semitism that blamed Jews for Germany's economic and cultural problems. This was articulated aggressively in Hitler's "Mein Kampf" and through various state policies.

Public Perception and Support

• General Approval: Despite the oppressive nature of the regime, many Germans supported the Nazis due to the economic recovery and the restoration of national pride and order.

• Youth and Community Sentiment: The early years of Nazi rule were viewed positively by significant segments of the German population, including the youth, who appreciated the sense of stability and direction provided by the regime.

Nazi Racial Policies and Actions

• Initial Discrimination and Nuremberg Laws (1935): Upon gaining power, Hitler implemented a series of policies that restricted Jewish participation in public and professional life, culminating in the Nuremberg Laws which stripped Jews of German citizenship and prohibited marriages or sexual relations between Jews and Germans.

• Kristallnacht (November 9, 1938): This event marked a significant escalation in Nazi persecution of Jews, with widespread destruction and looting of Jewish properties, signaling a clear intent to eliminate Jews from German society.

Nazi Gender Policies

• Role of Women: Contrary to Soviet policies which integrated women into the workforce, the Nazis pushed to confine women primarily to domestic roles, emphasizing motherhood and household duties as their primary function.

• Promotion of Motherhood: Both Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy promoted motherhood as a duty to the state, discouraging contraception and abortion, which were viewed as contrary to the state's interests.

Nazi Ideological Celebrations and Propaganda

• Public Ceremonies: The regime organized massive ceremonies to celebrate German racial superiority and the mythic vision of the nation, with Hitler positioned as the mystical and prophetic leader of the German people.

• Cultural and Sexual Policies: The state controlled cultural expressions and established brothels, reflecting a belief in the need for sexual outlets to maintain military and racial strength.

Rejection of Western Values

• Contrast with Enlightenment Values: The rise of the Nazis represented a stark rejection of Enlightenment ideals such as rationalism, tolerance, and democracy, which had shaped Western thought.

• Scientific Racism: Nazis utilized pseudo-scientific theories, such as phrenology, to justify racial policies, drawing on 19th-century ideas to classify and rank human groups.

Transformation of the European Political Landscape by 1940

• Shift from Democracy to Authoritarianism: By the outbreak of World War II, the political landscape in Europe had dramatically shifted from capitalist democracies to authoritarian regimes in the Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy, emphasizing collective identities over individual rights.

• Economic and Political Control: Fascist and communist states increased state involvement in the economy, moving away from the liberal capitalist model and suppressing multiparty democracies in favor of dictatorships.

Japanese Authoritarianism

Parallel Modern Histories: Japan, Italy, and Germany

• Late Entry into Great Power Status: Japan, like Italy and Germany, was a latecomer to the status of a Great Power, achieving this only in the late 19th century as the sole Asian member.

• Limited Democratic Experience: Japan's democratic experience was constrained by a limited electorate and the exalted status of the emperor and his elite advisers.

• Shift to Authoritarianism and Expansionism in the 1930s: During the 1930s, Japan moved toward authoritarian governance and aggressive territorial expansion in East Asia, similar to movements in Italy and Germany.

Japan's Participation in World War I and Post-War Growth

• Minimal Role in World War I: Japan's involvement in World War I was limited, allowing its economy to grow while others were embroiled in the European conflict.

• Equal Status at Peace Conference: Japan was recognized as an equal among victorious nations like Britain, France, and the United States at the post-World War I peace conference.

Japan’s Democratic and Cultural Movements in the 1920s

• Trend Toward Democracy: In the 1920s, Japan saw movements towards democracy, including the achievement of universal male suffrage and the emergence of a two-party system.

• Cultural Westernization: There was a significant embrace of Western cultural values, with an expanding middle class, emergence of consumer culture, and greater gender equality.

Social Tensions and Movements

• Rice Riots of 1918: Economic protests due to the rising cost of rice highlighted growing social discontent.

• Increase in Union Activity and Women’s Movements: The 1920s saw a rise in union memberships, formation of tenant unions in rural areas, and active advocacy for feminist issues including women’s suffrage.

Elite Anxiety and the Impact of the Great Depression

• Elite Concerns: The rising social movements and the echoes of the Russian Revolution alarmed Japan’s traditional elites, including bureaucrats and military officials.

• Economic Impact of the Great Depression: The global economic downturn severely affected Japan, leading to significant unemployment, reduction in exports, and increased poverty in rural areas.

• Doubt in Democracy and Capitalism: The economic crisis led to widespread doubt in the efficacy of democracy and capitalism to address national crises, fueling movements toward radical nationalism.

Rise of Radical Nationalism

• Growth of Radical Nationalist Movement: The Great Depression energized a movement known as Radical Nationalism or the Revolutionary Right, particularly appealing to younger military officers.

• Characteristics of the Movement: The movement was marked by extreme nationalism, a rejection of democracy, a focus on elite leadership centered around the emperor, and a strong drive for foreign expansion.

Contrast with European Fascism

• Lack of a Fascist Party with Mass Support: Unlike the strong fascist movements and parties in Italy and Germany, Japan did not see any right-wing or fascist party gaining widespread popular support or seizing power during the 1930s.

• Absence of a Charismatic Dictatorial Leader: In stark contrast to Mussolini and Hitler, Japan did not produce a charismatic, authoritarian leader who dominated the political scene; instead, the traditional structures and the revered status of the emperor remained central.

• Resocialization Instead of Persecution: Political offenders in Japan underwent a process of "resocialization," aiming to reintegrate them into society by making them renounce their previous ideologies, which differed significantly from the harsh persecutions in Nazi Germany.

Political Stability and Traditional Structures

• Strong Institutional Framework: Japan’s established institutions of government and societal norms, which viewed the nation as a familial structure headed by the emperor, were robust enough to prevent the emergence of a radical fascist movement that could overthrow the existing order.

• Role of the Emperor: The emperor's position as a semi-divine figure and the cultural perception of the nation as a family under his guidance played a critical role in maintaining stability and preventing the rise of disruptive political movements.

Government and Military Dynamics in the 1930s

• Dominant Military Influence: Reflecting Japan's long-standing respect for the samurai class, the military assumed a more prominent role in political life during the 1930s, significantly influencing government policy and national direction.

• Censorship and Controlled Expression: The government imposed strict censorship and established a controlled media environment, limiting free expression and ensuring that public discourse supported state policies and nationalist ideology.

• Nationalistic Education: The Ministry of Education in 1937 introduced new educational materials that stressed the uniqueness of Japan compared to Western nations, promoting a narrative of natural familial hierarchy centered around the emperor, contrasting sharply with Western individualism.

Economic Management and Recovery

• State-Driven Economic Recovery: Similar to the approaches in Nazi Germany, Japan's government actively intervened in the economy to mitigate the effects of the Great Depression through significant public spending on infrastructure and armaments, which spurred economic recovery and reduced unemployment dramatically.

• Preservation of Private Enterprises: Unlike the collectivization seen in communist states, Japan preserved private property rights and allowed zaibatsu, large industrial conglomerates, to continue playing a dominant role in the economy, albeit under increasing state oversight.

• Economic Nationalism: The government's economic policies during the 1930s were marked by a shift towards greater state involvement in economic planning and management, aiming to strengthen national self-sufficiency and military readiness.

Social Policies and International Ambitions

• Pluralistic Society with Limited Repression: Despite the authoritarian shift, Japan maintained a relatively pluralistic society with fewer political prisoners and less systemic repression compared to the totalitarian regimes of Hitler and Mussolini.

• Imperial and Military Expansion: Japan's imperial ambitions led to aggressive territorial expansions in East Asia, aiming to establish a sphere of influence and secure resources, which brought it into direct conflict with Western powers and precipitated the Pacific theater of World War II.

AP Questions:

How did the Great Depression affect the relationship between governments and their citizens?

• Increased Government Intervention: The Great Depression led to a dramatic increase in government intervention in the economy. Governments in the West, particularly in the United States with the New Deal, introduced extensive programs of public works and social welfare to address massive unemployment and economic stagnation.

• Shift in Public Expectations: The economic failures of the Great Depression shifted public expectations towards a greater acceptance of government responsibility for ensuring economic stability and citizen welfare, moving away from the laissez-faire economic policies that had dominated prior.

• Strengthening of State Power: The economic crisis of the Great Depression contributed to the strengthening of state power across many countries as governments took a more active role in economic management and oversight, which in some cases led to authoritarian regimes gaining or consolidating power.

In what ways did fascism challenge the ideas and practices of European liberalism and democracy?

• Rejection of Individualism and Parliamentary Democracy: Fascism explicitly rejected the core tenets of liberalism and democracy, such as individual rights and parliamentary governance, advocating instead for a totalitarian state ruled by a dictatorial leader.

• Promotion of Totalitarianism: Fascists promoted a one-party state where the nation and the state were merged under a charismatic leader, contrasting sharply with the democratic idea of separation of powers and checks and balances.

• Cult of Violence and Nationalism: Fascism celebrated violence as a means to achieve national rejuvenation and emphasized aggressive nationalism and xenophobia, which undermined the liberal democratic values of peace, tolerance, and international cooperation.

What are some of the factors that led to the rise of fascism in Italy?

• Post-World War I Discontent: The dissatisfaction with Italy's rewards from the Treaty of Versailles, combined with the economic turmoil and the perceived weakness of the government, created a fertile ground for radical solutions.

• Economic Instability and Social Unrest: Severe economic problems and widespread social unrest, including strikes and land seizures, fueled support for a strong leadership that promised restoration of order and national pride.

• Fear of Communism: The rise of socialist and communist movements within Italy stoked fears among the middle and upper classes, driving them towards fascism, which promised to counter these movements and protect traditional social structures.

What conditions in Germany made the nation fertile ground for the growth of fascism?

• Economic Hardship: The Great Depression had a devastating impact on Germany, with massive unemployment and economic collapse, which discredited the Weimar Republic and led many to lose faith in traditional democratic and capitalist systems.

• Versailles Treaty Resentment: Deep-seated resentment over the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which many Germans viewed as unjust and humiliating, helped to fuel nationalist and revanchist sentiments that the Nazis exploited.

• Political Instability: The frequent changes in government and the perceived ineffectiveness of the Weimar Republic provided an opportunity for extremist parties like the Nazis, who promised stability, revival of the economy, and restoration of national pride.

What was distinctive about the German expression of fascism?

• Extreme Emphasis on Racial Ideology: German fascism, or Nazism, placed a particularly strong emphasis on racial purity and anti-Semitism, which was central to its ideology. This focus led to the systemic persecution and extermination of Jews and other groups considered undesirable, a level of racial policy not as pronounced in other fascist regimes.

• Charismatic Leadership: Adolf Hitler's role as the Führer was more pronounced in terms of personal cult than in other fascist states. His leadership was considered almost messianic, with propaganda portraying him as the savior of the German people.

• Expansionist Foreign Policy: While other fascist regimes were also aggressive, Nazi Germany's pursuit of Lebensraum (living space) was a particularly aggressive form of expansionism that aimed at the large-scale territorial acquisition primarily in Eastern Europe, leading directly to World War II.

Describe the sources of political, economic, and social tensions in the early twentieth century that led to political instability in Japan.

• Economic Disparities: Despite industrial growth, economic disparities were significant, particularly affecting rural areas where poverty was widespread. The Great Depression exacerbated these issues, leading to increased unrest and dissatisfaction with the government.

• Limited Democratic Experience: Japan's democratic systems were relatively new and fragile, with a limited franchise and significant power still held by the emperor and military elites, which hindered the development of a robust democratic culture.

• Military Influence and Nationalism: Increasing militarism and nationalism challenged democratic and civilian governance. The military's growing influence over Japanese politics during the 1930s led to more authoritarian governance and an aggressive foreign policy.

How did Japan’s experience during the 1920s and 1930s resemble that of Germany, and how did it differ?

• Similarities:

  • Economic Challenges: Both Japan and Germany faced significant economic challenges during the Great Depression, leading to high unemployment and social unrest.

  • Political Radicalization: In both countries, economic and social crises led to a radicalization of politics, with a significant shift towards authoritarianism and militarism.

  • Nationalist Response to Humiliation: Both nations responded to perceived humiliations (Versailles for Germany, Western racial policies for Japan) with aggressive nationalism.

• Differences:

  • Scope of Democracy: Germany had a more established, if unstable, parliamentary democracy compared to Japan, where democratic institutions were weaker and less influential.

  • Role of Military: In Japan, the military gained direct control over the government earlier and more completely than in Germany, where the Nazi party controlled the state apparatus.

  • Imperial Ambitions: Japan's imperial ambitions were focused on Asia and were driven by both strategic and resource considerations, while Nazi Germany's expansionist policies were primarily focused on Europe and driven by ideological goals of racial purity and living space.