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Unit 4 AMSCO (2020)

UNIT 4: Transoceanic Interconnections from C. 1450 to C. 1750

1. Understand the Context

  • Christopher Columbus' voyage (1492) established connections between the Eastern and Western hemispheres.

  • These connections led to global trade networks that shaped subsequent historical events.

2. Establishment of Maritime Empires

  • Between 1450 and 1750, European powers (particularly Portugal and Spain) sought transoceanic routes to Asia.

  • European trading post empires emerged in the Indian Ocean, leading to interactions with the Americas.

3. Global Exchanges

3.1 Trans-Atlantic Trade

  • Linked the Americas, Europe, and Africa, creating a new trading system.

  • European colonists established plantations in the Americas for cash crops (sugar mainly).

  • The demand for labor led to the rise of the transatlantic slave trade.

3.2 Trans-Pacific Trade

  • Silver mining in Latin America became a major economic driver.

  • The Columbian Exchange facilitated the transfer of crops, animals, and diseases, significantly impacting populations.

    • Examples: Potatoes, corn, and tomatoes introduced to Europe contributed to population growth.

    • Diseases like smallpox and measles dramatically reduced indigenous populations in the Americas.

4. Change and Continuity

  • Despite European influence, established Afro-Eurasian states (Mughal, Ottoman, Qing) continued to expand and thrive.

  • Peasant and artisan labor demands rose globally, setting the stage for revolutions post-1750.

5. Key Figures and Events Timeline

  • Hernán Cortés conquers the Aztecs (1521).

  • The Dutch East India Company established (1602).

  • Peter the Great of Russia visits West Europe (1697).

4.1 Technological Innovations

  • Navigation technologies significantly improved ocean travel:

    • Magnetic Compass: Originated in China, vital for direction.

    • Astrolabe: Improved by Muslim navigators; calculated latitude.

    • Caravel: A three-masted ship design by the Portuguese that improved sailing efficiency.

    • Advancements in Cartography: Enhanced mapping capabilities for navigators.

5. Demographic Pressures

  • Population growth in Europe pushed people to explore for food, land, and opportunities.

6. Developments of Transoceanic Travel

  • Indian Ocean Trade: Established routes linked Europe with Asia for silk and spices.

  • After Columbus, European traders also linked Afro-Eurasia with the Americas, trading enslaved people, sugar, and spices.

4.2 Exploration: Causes and Events

1. Motivations for Exploration

  • European competition for trade and conversion to Christianity drove exploration efforts.

  • State Support: Monarchs funded explorations due to expected returns in riches and territory.

2. European Powers in Exploration

  • Portugal led early explorations:

    • Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored expeditions.

    • Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco Da Gama opened sea routes to India.

  • Spanish Exploration: Columbus' journey sparked subsequent Spanish conquests in the Americas.

    • Discoveries of the Aztecs and Incas exposed vast wealth in gold and silver.

  • French and English Explorations: Sought northwest passage to Asia, leading to claiming territories in North America.

4.3 Columbian Exchange

1. Overview

  • Exchange of goods and ideas between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres (crops, animals, diseases).

2. Impact on Indigenous People

  • Disease led to rapid declines in native populations.

    • Smallpox and other diseases drastically reduced numbers (up to 90% mortality).

  • Introduction of livestock and crops transformed indigenous lifestyles.

3. Effects on Africa

  • New crops improved diets; populations grew despite the impacts of the slave trade.

4. Economic Impact

  • Sugar and tobacco became dominant cash crops, hugely profitable for European empires.

4.4 Maritime Empires Link Regions

1. Formation and Administration of Empires

  • European states pursued maritime empires for political, religious, and economic reasons.

  • Established trading posts to control trade and resource extraction in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

2. Labor Systems in the Americas

  • Encomienda: Forced labor system exploiting indigenous peoples replaced by enslaved Africans as plantations grew.

  • Chattel Slavery: Became widespread, especially for cash crops.

3. Resistance Movements

  • Native revolts against European dominance occurred as indigenous societies attempted to protect their lands.

4.5 Maritime Empires Develop

1. Economic Strategies

  • Joint-stock companies emerged to finance maritime trade, easing the risks of voyages.

2. Rise of the Commercial Revolution

  • The integration of available capital into global trade significantly expanded commerce.

3. Pearls and Silver

  • Silver from the Americas drove global trade networks, especially towards Asia, impacting economies.

4.6 Internal and External Challenges to State Power

1. Resistance to Empire Expansion

  • Various groups resisted imperial control, such as Charles the Silent in Russia and indigenous peoples in the Americas.

2. Social and Political Dynamics

  • Constructions of power challenged by internal revolts (French Fronde, Pugachev Rebellion).

4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies

1. Social Structures Established

  • New hierarchies emerged in the Americas based on racial and ethnic distinctions.

    • Casta System in Latin America: Peninsulares, criollos, mestizos, and others.

2. Treatment of Minorities

  • Jews faced expulsion from countries but found refuge in the Ottoman Empire.

3. Gender Roles

  • Gender imbalances due to the slave trade shifted societal roles.

4.8 Continuity and Change from C. 1450 to C. 1750

1. Interconnectedness

  • By 1750, global economy linked most of the world via transoceanic trade networks.

2. Economic Impacts

  • Development of capitalism from mercantilism shifted trade paradigms.

3. Social Structures

  • New racial and social hierarchies impacted societal dynamics in both the Americas and Europe.