UNIT 4: Transoceanic Interconnections from C. 1450 to C. 1750

1. Understand the Context

• Christopher Columbus' voyage (1492) established connections between the Eastern and Western hemispheres.

• These connections led to global trade networks that shaped subsequent historical events.

2. Establishment of Maritime Empires

• Between 1450 and 1750, European powers (particularly Portugal and Spain) sought transoceanic routes to Asia.

• European trading post empires emerged in the Indian Ocean, leading to interactions with the Americas.

3. Global Exchanges

3.1 Trans-Atlantic Trade

• Linked the Americas, Europe, and Africa, creating a new trading system.

• European colonists established plantations in the Americas for cash crops (sugar mainly).

• The demand for labor led to the rise of the transatlantic slave trade.

3.2 Trans-Pacific Trade

• Silver mining in Latin America became a major economic driver.

• The Columbian Exchange facilitated the transfer of crops, animals, and diseases, significantly impacting populations.

  • Examples: Potatoes, corn, and tomatoes introduced to Europe contributed to population growth.

  • Diseases like smallpox and measles dramatically reduced indigenous populations in the Americas.

4. Change and Continuity

• Despite European influence, established Afro-Eurasian states (Mughal, Ottoman, Qing) continued to expand and thrive.

• Peasant and artisan labor demands rose globally, setting the stage for revolutions post-1750.

5. Key Figures and Events Timeline

• Hernán Cortés conquers the Aztecs (1521).

• The Dutch East India Company established (1602).

• Peter the Great of Russia visits West Europe (1697).

4.1 Technological Innovations

• Navigation technologies significantly improved ocean travel:

  • Magnetic Compass: Originated in China, vital for direction.

  • Astrolabe: Improved by Muslim navigators; calculated latitude.

  • Caravel: A three-masted ship design by the Portuguese that improved sailing efficiency.

  • Advancements in Cartography: Enhanced mapping capabilities for navigators.

5. Demographic Pressures

• Population growth in Europe pushed people to explore for food, land, and opportunities.

6. Developments of Transoceanic Travel

• Indian Ocean Trade: Established routes linked Europe with Asia for silk and spices.

• After Columbus, European traders also linked Afro-Eurasia with the Americas, trading enslaved people, sugar, and spices.

4.2 Exploration: Causes and Events

1. Motivations for Exploration

• European competition for trade and conversion to Christianity drove exploration efforts.

• State Support: Monarchs funded explorations due to expected returns in riches and territory.

2. European Powers in Exploration

• Portugal led early explorations:

  • Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored expeditions.

  • Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco Da Gama opened sea routes to India.

• Spanish Exploration: Columbus' journey sparked subsequent Spanish conquests in the Americas.

  • Discoveries of the Aztecs and Incas exposed vast wealth in gold and silver.

• French and English Explorations: Sought northwest passage to Asia, leading to claiming territories in North America.

4.3 Columbian Exchange

1. Overview

• Exchange of goods and ideas between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres (crops, animals, diseases).

2. Impact on Indigenous People

• Disease led to rapid declines in native populations.

  • Smallpox and other diseases drastically reduced numbers (up to 90% mortality).

• Introduction of livestock and crops transformed indigenous lifestyles.

3. Effects on Africa

• New crops improved diets; populations grew despite the impacts of the slave trade.

4. Economic Impact

• Sugar and tobacco became dominant cash crops, hugely profitable for European empires.

4.4 Maritime Empires Link Regions

1. Formation and Administration of Empires

• European states pursued maritime empires for political, religious, and economic reasons.

• Established trading posts to control trade and resource extraction in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

2. Labor Systems in the Americas

• Encomienda: Forced labor system exploiting indigenous peoples replaced by enslaved Africans as plantations grew.

• Chattel Slavery: Became widespread, especially for cash crops.

3. Resistance Movements

• Native revolts against European dominance occurred as indigenous societies attempted to protect their lands.

4.5 Maritime Empires Develop

1. Economic Strategies

• Joint-stock companies emerged to finance maritime trade, easing the risks of voyages.

2. Rise of the Commercial Revolution

• The integration of available capital into global trade significantly expanded commerce.

3. Pearls and Silver

• Silver from the Americas drove global trade networks, especially towards Asia, impacting economies.

4.6 Internal and External Challenges to State Power

1. Resistance to Empire Expansion

• Various groups resisted imperial control, such as Charles the Silent in Russia and indigenous peoples in the Americas.

2. Social and Political Dynamics

• Constructions of power challenged by internal revolts (French Fronde, Pugachev Rebellion).

4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies

1. Social Structures Established

• New hierarchies emerged in the Americas based on racial and ethnic distinctions.

  • Casta System in Latin America: Peninsulares, criollos, mestizos, and others.

2. Treatment of Minorities

• Jews faced expulsion from countries but found refuge in the Ottoman Empire.

3. Gender Roles

• Gender imbalances due to the slave trade shifted societal roles.

4.8 Continuity and Change from C. 1450 to C. 1750

1. Interconnectedness

• By 1750, global economy linked most of the world via transoceanic trade networks.

2. Economic Impacts

• Development of capitalism from mercantilism shifted trade paradigms.

3. Social Structures

• New racial and social hierarchies impacted societal dynamics in both the Americas and Europe.