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Chapter 2.4 Civilizations of the Americas
The Aztec Empire, or Triple Alliance
The Aztec and Inca empires dominated two civilizational zones in the Americas during the century before Columbus’s voyage in 1492 brought these two “old worlds” into contact with one another. But the Aztec and Inca states had little, if any, direct contact with each other.
Vocabulary:
Maya Civilization: A major civilization of Mesoamerica known for the most elaborate writing system in the Americas and other intellectual and artistic achievements; flourished from 250 to 900 C.E.
Aztec Empire/Triple Alliance: Major state that developed in what is now Mexico in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; dominated by the semi-nomadic Mexica, who had migrated into the region from northern Mexico.
Cultural and Religious Continuity:
The Aztec Empire inherited a rich cultural and religious heritage from earlier civilizations in the region, spanning from central Mexico to northern Central America.
Despite environmental and ethnic diversity, Mesoamerica exhibited a cohesive cultural identity characterized by shared agricultural practices, economic systems, religious beliefs, and ritual practices.
Key features of Mesoamerican civilizations included the cultivation of staple crops like maize, beans, chili peppers, and squash, reliance on market exchange for economic activity, and the practice of human sacrifice as a religious ritual.
Mesoamerican religions revolved around a pantheon of male and female deities, with a cyclical understanding of time reflecting cosmic cycles of creation and destruction.
Civilizational Development:
Mesoamerica witnessed the emergence, flourishing, and eventual decline of various civilizations, with the Olmec civilization marking the beginning around 1200 B.C.E.
Among these civilizations, the Maya civilization stands out for its remarkable artistic and intellectual achievements, dominating regions such as modern-day Guatemala and the Yucatán Peninsula from 250 to 900 C.E.
Maya urban centers were characterized by impressive architectural feats, including temples, pyramids, palaces, and public plazas adorned with intricate murals and stone carvings.
Intellectual advancements among the Maya included the development of a sophisticated writing system comprising pictographs and phonetic elements, as well as a mathematical system incorporating the concept of zero and place notation for complex calculations.
Political Organization and Fragmentation:
Mesoamerican societies were organized into a highly fragmented political system comprising city-states, local lords, and regional kingdoms, lacking a central authority and often engaging in warfare.
Despite cultural and religious commonalities, political fragmentation contributed to instability and frequent conflicts among Mesoamerican polities.
The collapse of the Maya civilization around 900 C.E. marked a significant turning point, characterized by the abrupt decline of urban centers and the disintegration of political authority, leaving behind a legacy of monumental ruins and unanswered questions about the causes of their downfall.
Formation and Expansion of the Aztec Empire:
Established between 1345 and 1528, the Aztec Empire was the culmination of the Mexica people's efforts
Originating from northern Mexico, the Mexica people migrated southward and established themselves on an island in Lake Texcoco by 1325.
Over the next century, they developed their military prowess, served as mercenaries, and formed elite marriage alliances, culminating in the creation of their capital city, Tenochtitlán.
In 1428, the Mexica formed a Triple Alliance with neighboring city-states Texcoco and Tlacopan, launching aggressive military campaigns that rapidly expanded the range of the Triple Alliance: the Aztec Empire across Mesoamerica.
Brought more territories under Aztec control within a relatively short span of less than 100 years.
Political Structure and Tribute System:
The Aztec Empire, characterized as a loosely structured conquest state, witnessed frequent rebellions among its subject peoples.
The Aztecs used a tribute system so that the conquered people were forced to pay a tribute, surrender lands, and perform military service.
Conquered territories were required to provide labor and tribute, including textiles, military supplies, foodstuffs, building materials, and luxury goods, overseen by local imperial tribute collectors.
Tenochtitlán, the empire's capital, boasted advanced infrastructure such as canals, causeways, and bridges, along with "floating gardens" (Chinampa) supporting a highly productive agriculture.
Societal Dynamics and Slave Role:
Slavery played a significant role in Aztec society, especially among captives of war who were often destined for sacrificial rituals.
Human sacrifice, integral to Aztec religious beliefs, gained prominence during the 15th century, serving the empire's ideological and political goals.
Religious Ideology:
Aztec religious beliefs revolved around the perpetual struggle between light and darkness, embodied by the sun's need for human blood to sustain its energy.
The Aztec state saw itself as the guardian of cosmic order, fulfilling its duty by supplying human sacrifices through conquest and warfare.
Enslaved prisoners were viewed as sacrifices to the gods, necessary to prevent the world from descending into darkness, shaping Aztec warfare strategies and reinforcing the authority of priests and rulers.
The Inca Empire in the Andean Mountains
Inca Empire: The Western Hemisphere’s largest imperial state in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Built by a relatively small community of Quechua-speaking people (the Incas), the empire stretched some 2,500 miles along the Andes Mountains, which run nearly the entire length of the west coast of South America, and contained perhaps 10 million subjects.
Geographical and Environmental Context:
The Andean region, characterized by its dramatic landscape and diverse ecosystems, provided the setting for the emergence of civilizations.
Bleak deserts along the coast were sustained by rivers flowing from the mountains, facilitating irrigation and cultivation.
The Pacific Ocean offered abundant marine resources, contributing to the richness of coastal environments.
The Andes themselves, with their highland valleys and varied altitudes, supported a range of ecological niches, including tropical fruits, coca leaves, maize, cotton, potatoes, quinoa, and pastureland for llamas.
Emergence of Andean Civilizations:
Over thousands of years, the Andean region saw the rise and fall of many small civilizations.
In the early 1400s, the Inca Empire, established by the Quechua-speaking Incas, emerged as a dominant force, incorporating lands and cultures of earlier Andean civilizations.
The Inca Empire, stretching along almost the entire spine of the Andes Mountains, became one of the largest states in the Americas, with a vast territory and millions of subjects.
Comparative Analysis with Aztec Empire:
While both the Aztec and Inca empires were remarkable for their rapid rise to power, they differed significantly in their political and economic structures.
The Aztec realm adopted a more laissez-faire approach to governance, whereas the Inca Empire established a centralized and bureaucratic system under an absolute ruler regarded as divine.
Inca society exhibited a greater degree of state control and intervention in various aspects of life, including land ownership, labor service (mita), and cultural integration efforts.
Political Organization and Governance:
The Inca Empire was characterized by a hierarchical structure with provincial governors appointed by the emperor.
A sophisticated administrative system, including the use of quipus for record-keeping, facilitated governance and resource management.
Efforts at cultural integration involved teaching Quechua to conquered peoples' leaders and relocating populations to disperse conquered groups and promote loyalty.
Labor Obligations and Social Structure:
Inca demands on conquered people primarily manifested as labor service, known as mita, which was compulsory for every household periodically.
While individuals produced goods at home for personal use, nearly everyone was required to work for the state in various capacities.
Different tasks included laboring on state farms, particularly those designated as "sun farms" to support temples and religious activities, as well as herding, mining, military service, and contributing to state-directed construction projects.
Specialized Labor and Social Status:
Skilled individuals, including those proficient in textiles, metalworking, ceramics, and stonework, were employed by the state to produce goods for broader use.
Among these specialists, the "chosen women" held a prominent position, having been selected and trained from a young age in Inca ideology.
The chosen women were primarily engaged in producing corn beer and cloth at state centers, and they later assumed roles as wives to distinguished men or as priestesses in temples, earning the title "wives of the Sun."
Reciprocal Obligations and Inca Ideology:
Inca ideology emphasized reciprocal obligations between the state and its citizens, expressed through familial relationships.
In exchange for labor services done by the population, the state was responsible for organizing elaborate feasts where plentiful food and drink were provided.
Additionally, the state was obliged to offer assistance, including food and other necessities, in times of adversity or disaster, thereby demonstrating its commitment to the welfare of its subjects.
Centralized Authority and Societal Influence:
The Inca state's authority permeated deeply into society and the economy, surpassing the level of control exerted by the Aztecs.
Through mechanisms such as labor obligations and communal feasts, the state not only directed economic activities but also influenced social cohesion and cultural practices.
This integration of state authority into various aspects of daily life illustrates the centralized and pervasive nature of Inca governance, contrasting with the relatively decentralized structure of Aztec rule.
Gender Systems and Social Organization:
Both the Aztec and Inca civilizations exhibited gender parallelism, with separate spheres of activity for men and women, each enjoying autonomy within their respective domains.
Parallel religious cults and hierarchies of male and female officials were present in both societies, reflecting distinct but complementary roles for men and women.
Domestic responsibilities were valued and not regarded as inferior, with symbolic significance attached to tasks such as sweeping and agricultural activities shared between genders.
AP Questions:
What distinguished the Aztec and Inca empires from each other?
Aztec Empire:
The Aztec Empire, centered in Mesoamerica, was characterized by its militaristic expansion and tribute-based economy.
Aztec rulers largely left conquered regions autonomous as long as tribute was paid, fostering a decentralized political structure.
Human sacrifice played a prominent role in Aztec religious and political life, serving as a means to maintain cosmic order and demonstrate imperial power.
Inca Empire:
The Inca Empire, situated in the Andean region, exhibited a highly centralized political system under divine rulership.
The Inca emperor held absolute authority and was revered as a descendant of the sun god, Inti.
Public labor service, known as mita, formed the basis of the Inca economy, with the state mobilizing resources and manpower for public projects like bridges and religious activities.
How the Inca employment of bureaucrats compare to that of other societies, such as China?
Inca Empire:
Bureaucrats in the Inca Empire were primarily drawn from the ruling class and nobility, appointed by the emperor or Inca governors.
While education and training were essential for administrative roles, appointments were often based on familial connections and loyalty to the state.
The Inca bureaucracy was less formalized compared to China, with positions often being hereditary or granted as rewards for loyalty rather than through rigorous examinations.
China:
China developed a sophisticated and merit-based bureaucratic system, known as the civil service examination system, which recruited officials based on their knowledge of Confucianism and administrative competence.
Bureaucrats in China were selected through a rigorous examination process that tested their literary and administrative skills, regardless of their social status or familial connections.
The Chinese bureaucracy was highly formalized, with clear hierarchical structures and standardized procedures for governance, emphasizing meritocracy and competence over aristocratic lineage.
Chapter 2.4 Civilizations of the Americas
The Aztec Empire, or Triple Alliance
The Aztec and Inca empires dominated two civilizational zones in the Americas during the century before Columbus’s voyage in 1492 brought these two “old worlds” into contact with one another. But the Aztec and Inca states had little, if any, direct contact with each other.
Vocabulary:
Maya Civilization: A major civilization of Mesoamerica known for the most elaborate writing system in the Americas and other intellectual and artistic achievements; flourished from 250 to 900 C.E.
Aztec Empire/Triple Alliance: Major state that developed in what is now Mexico in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; dominated by the semi-nomadic Mexica, who had migrated into the region from northern Mexico.
Cultural and Religious Continuity:
The Aztec Empire inherited a rich cultural and religious heritage from earlier civilizations in the region, spanning from central Mexico to northern Central America.
Despite environmental and ethnic diversity, Mesoamerica exhibited a cohesive cultural identity characterized by shared agricultural practices, economic systems, religious beliefs, and ritual practices.
Key features of Mesoamerican civilizations included the cultivation of staple crops like maize, beans, chili peppers, and squash, reliance on market exchange for economic activity, and the practice of human sacrifice as a religious ritual.
Mesoamerican religions revolved around a pantheon of male and female deities, with a cyclical understanding of time reflecting cosmic cycles of creation and destruction.
Civilizational Development:
Mesoamerica witnessed the emergence, flourishing, and eventual decline of various civilizations, with the Olmec civilization marking the beginning around 1200 B.C.E.
Among these civilizations, the Maya civilization stands out for its remarkable artistic and intellectual achievements, dominating regions such as modern-day Guatemala and the Yucatán Peninsula from 250 to 900 C.E.
Maya urban centers were characterized by impressive architectural feats, including temples, pyramids, palaces, and public plazas adorned with intricate murals and stone carvings.
Intellectual advancements among the Maya included the development of a sophisticated writing system comprising pictographs and phonetic elements, as well as a mathematical system incorporating the concept of zero and place notation for complex calculations.
Political Organization and Fragmentation:
Mesoamerican societies were organized into a highly fragmented political system comprising city-states, local lords, and regional kingdoms, lacking a central authority and often engaging in warfare.
Despite cultural and religious commonalities, political fragmentation contributed to instability and frequent conflicts among Mesoamerican polities.
The collapse of the Maya civilization around 900 C.E. marked a significant turning point, characterized by the abrupt decline of urban centers and the disintegration of political authority, leaving behind a legacy of monumental ruins and unanswered questions about the causes of their downfall.
Formation and Expansion of the Aztec Empire:
Established between 1345 and 1528, the Aztec Empire was the culmination of the Mexica people's efforts
Originating from northern Mexico, the Mexica people migrated southward and established themselves on an island in Lake Texcoco by 1325.
Over the next century, they developed their military prowess, served as mercenaries, and formed elite marriage alliances, culminating in the creation of their capital city, Tenochtitlán.
In 1428, the Mexica formed a Triple Alliance with neighboring city-states Texcoco and Tlacopan, launching aggressive military campaigns that rapidly expanded the range of the Triple Alliance: the Aztec Empire across Mesoamerica.
Brought more territories under Aztec control within a relatively short span of less than 100 years.
Political Structure and Tribute System:
The Aztec Empire, characterized as a loosely structured conquest state, witnessed frequent rebellions among its subject peoples.
The Aztecs used a tribute system so that the conquered people were forced to pay a tribute, surrender lands, and perform military service.
Conquered territories were required to provide labor and tribute, including textiles, military supplies, foodstuffs, building materials, and luxury goods, overseen by local imperial tribute collectors.
Tenochtitlán, the empire's capital, boasted advanced infrastructure such as canals, causeways, and bridges, along with "floating gardens" (Chinampa) supporting a highly productive agriculture.
Societal Dynamics and Slave Role:
Slavery played a significant role in Aztec society, especially among captives of war who were often destined for sacrificial rituals.
Human sacrifice, integral to Aztec religious beliefs, gained prominence during the 15th century, serving the empire's ideological and political goals.
Religious Ideology:
Aztec religious beliefs revolved around the perpetual struggle between light and darkness, embodied by the sun's need for human blood to sustain its energy.
The Aztec state saw itself as the guardian of cosmic order, fulfilling its duty by supplying human sacrifices through conquest and warfare.
Enslaved prisoners were viewed as sacrifices to the gods, necessary to prevent the world from descending into darkness, shaping Aztec warfare strategies and reinforcing the authority of priests and rulers.
The Inca Empire in the Andean Mountains
Inca Empire: The Western Hemisphere’s largest imperial state in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Built by a relatively small community of Quechua-speaking people (the Incas), the empire stretched some 2,500 miles along the Andes Mountains, which run nearly the entire length of the west coast of South America, and contained perhaps 10 million subjects.
Geographical and Environmental Context:
The Andean region, characterized by its dramatic landscape and diverse ecosystems, provided the setting for the emergence of civilizations.
Bleak deserts along the coast were sustained by rivers flowing from the mountains, facilitating irrigation and cultivation.
The Pacific Ocean offered abundant marine resources, contributing to the richness of coastal environments.
The Andes themselves, with their highland valleys and varied altitudes, supported a range of ecological niches, including tropical fruits, coca leaves, maize, cotton, potatoes, quinoa, and pastureland for llamas.
Emergence of Andean Civilizations:
Over thousands of years, the Andean region saw the rise and fall of many small civilizations.
In the early 1400s, the Inca Empire, established by the Quechua-speaking Incas, emerged as a dominant force, incorporating lands and cultures of earlier Andean civilizations.
The Inca Empire, stretching along almost the entire spine of the Andes Mountains, became one of the largest states in the Americas, with a vast territory and millions of subjects.
Comparative Analysis with Aztec Empire:
While both the Aztec and Inca empires were remarkable for their rapid rise to power, they differed significantly in their political and economic structures.
The Aztec realm adopted a more laissez-faire approach to governance, whereas the Inca Empire established a centralized and bureaucratic system under an absolute ruler regarded as divine.
Inca society exhibited a greater degree of state control and intervention in various aspects of life, including land ownership, labor service (mita), and cultural integration efforts.
Political Organization and Governance:
The Inca Empire was characterized by a hierarchical structure with provincial governors appointed by the emperor.
A sophisticated administrative system, including the use of quipus for record-keeping, facilitated governance and resource management.
Efforts at cultural integration involved teaching Quechua to conquered peoples' leaders and relocating populations to disperse conquered groups and promote loyalty.
Labor Obligations and Social Structure:
Inca demands on conquered people primarily manifested as labor service, known as mita, which was compulsory for every household periodically.
While individuals produced goods at home for personal use, nearly everyone was required to work for the state in various capacities.
Different tasks included laboring on state farms, particularly those designated as "sun farms" to support temples and religious activities, as well as herding, mining, military service, and contributing to state-directed construction projects.
Specialized Labor and Social Status:
Skilled individuals, including those proficient in textiles, metalworking, ceramics, and stonework, were employed by the state to produce goods for broader use.
Among these specialists, the "chosen women" held a prominent position, having been selected and trained from a young age in Inca ideology.
The chosen women were primarily engaged in producing corn beer and cloth at state centers, and they later assumed roles as wives to distinguished men or as priestesses in temples, earning the title "wives of the Sun."
Reciprocal Obligations and Inca Ideology:
Inca ideology emphasized reciprocal obligations between the state and its citizens, expressed through familial relationships.
In exchange for labor services done by the population, the state was responsible for organizing elaborate feasts where plentiful food and drink were provided.
Additionally, the state was obliged to offer assistance, including food and other necessities, in times of adversity or disaster, thereby demonstrating its commitment to the welfare of its subjects.
Centralized Authority and Societal Influence:
The Inca state's authority permeated deeply into society and the economy, surpassing the level of control exerted by the Aztecs.
Through mechanisms such as labor obligations and communal feasts, the state not only directed economic activities but also influenced social cohesion and cultural practices.
This integration of state authority into various aspects of daily life illustrates the centralized and pervasive nature of Inca governance, contrasting with the relatively decentralized structure of Aztec rule.
Gender Systems and Social Organization:
Both the Aztec and Inca civilizations exhibited gender parallelism, with separate spheres of activity for men and women, each enjoying autonomy within their respective domains.
Parallel religious cults and hierarchies of male and female officials were present in both societies, reflecting distinct but complementary roles for men and women.
Domestic responsibilities were valued and not regarded as inferior, with symbolic significance attached to tasks such as sweeping and agricultural activities shared between genders.
AP Questions:
What distinguished the Aztec and Inca empires from each other?
Aztec Empire:
The Aztec Empire, centered in Mesoamerica, was characterized by its militaristic expansion and tribute-based economy.
Aztec rulers largely left conquered regions autonomous as long as tribute was paid, fostering a decentralized political structure.
Human sacrifice played a prominent role in Aztec religious and political life, serving as a means to maintain cosmic order and demonstrate imperial power.
Inca Empire:
The Inca Empire, situated in the Andean region, exhibited a highly centralized political system under divine rulership.
The Inca emperor held absolute authority and was revered as a descendant of the sun god, Inti.
Public labor service, known as mita, formed the basis of the Inca economy, with the state mobilizing resources and manpower for public projects like bridges and religious activities.
How the Inca employment of bureaucrats compare to that of other societies, such as China?
Inca Empire:
Bureaucrats in the Inca Empire were primarily drawn from the ruling class and nobility, appointed by the emperor or Inca governors.
While education and training were essential for administrative roles, appointments were often based on familial connections and loyalty to the state.
The Inca bureaucracy was less formalized compared to China, with positions often being hereditary or granted as rewards for loyalty rather than through rigorous examinations.
China:
China developed a sophisticated and merit-based bureaucratic system, known as the civil service examination system, which recruited officials based on their knowledge of Confucianism and administrative competence.
Bureaucrats in China were selected through a rigorous examination process that tested their literary and administrative skills, regardless of their social status or familial connections.
The Chinese bureaucracy was highly formalized, with clear hierarchical structures and standardized procedures for governance, emphasizing meritocracy and competence over aristocratic lineage.