Civilizations exhibited diverse cultural and religious traditions that provided common identities but also fueled social conflicts and inequalities.

• Major cultural traditions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam emerged between 600 B.C.E. and 700 C.E., shaping the Afro-Eurasian world by 1200, which is the time period in which AP World starts.

Hinduism:

Religion based on the many beliefs, practices, sex, rituals, and philosophies in India

• The term “Hinduism” was not coined until way later:

  • In the thinking of the 19th century Indian reformers, it was expressed as a distinctive tradition, an Indian religion wholly equivalent to Christianity.

Culture: India

• Context:

  • Belief in one supreme force called Brahma who created everything - many gods are manifestations of Brahman (Vishnu = preserver, Shiva = destroyer)

    • Wildly polytheistic

  • Goal of believer is to merge with Brahman - believe it takes multiple lives to accomplish and believers live to determine who they will be in their next life

  • Following the dharma (rules and obligations of your caste) will move you towards Brahman - moksha is highest state of being (internal peace and release of soul)

  • Upanishads:

    • Collection of Indian mystical and philosophical works written between 800 and 400 B.C.E.

  • Brahmins:

    • Highest caste of Indian society for holy men.

  • Bhakti Movement:

    • Hindu movement began in south India and moved northward between 600 and 1000 C.E.; it involved the individual alignment with a particular deity through songs, prayers, and rituals. (pron. BAHK-tee)

      • Popular deities: Vishnu (Preserver), Shiva (destroyer)

      • Was extremely popular as it was more accessible to ordinary people.

Buddhism:

Cultures: Originated in India; spread to China, Southeast Asia, and Japan, through trade.

• Context:

  • Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a young Hindu prince.

    • The Indian Prince whose exposure to human suffering led him to develop a path to Enlightenment (rather than the Hinduist concept of moksha), which became the basis for the emerging religious tradition of Buddhism.

  • No supreme being - 4 Noble Truth: (1) all life is suffering, (2) suffering caused by desire, (3) can be freed of desire, (4) freed of desire following a prescribed path

• Integrated some Hindu elements: meditation, concepts of karma & rebirth, goal of overcoming the ego.

  • Disagreed with Hinduism by challenging the caste system and the religious authority of the Brahmin class

• Death of Buddha (483 BCE) = Buddhism split - Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism

  • Theravada Buddhism: meditation, simplicity, nirvana as renunciation of consciousness and self

    • Definition: The early form of Buddhism according to which the Buddha was a wise teacher but not divine; emphasizes practices rather than divine beliefs.

    • Heavily ritualistic and time consuming for many converts

  • Mahayana Buddhism: great ritual, spiritual comfort, compassion - more complex but with greater spread

    • Definition: The popular development of Buddhism in the early centuries of the Common Era, which gives a much greater role to supernatural beings and to compassion and proved to be more popular than original (Theravada) Buddhism.

    • Buddha was portrayed as an idol, which eased in Mahayana’s spread.

    • Spread to Central Asia, China, Japan, Korea, and elsewhere, in many variations

Tibetan Buddhism:

• Emphasized the authority of Lamas, awareness of death, and complex spiritual practices influenced by native traditions and Hinduism.

Decline of Buddhism in India:

• By 1200 C.E., Buddhism waned in India due to economic interests, hostility from the Hinduist Brahmin priests, and competition from Islam.

• The main reason is the Bhakti Movement, though.

AP Continuity and Change: How did Hinduism respond to the challenges of Buddhism?

Hinduism responded to the challenges of Buddhism through the Bhakti movement, which emerged between the sixth and thirteenth centuries C.E. This movement emphasized devotion to various deities like Vishnu and Shiva, providing a more accessible spiritual path compared to the rituals and doctrines of Buddhism. Bhakti spirituality challenged social hierarchies and orthodox doctrines, offering individuals a route to salvation through emotional devotion, simple living, and good deeds.

Confucianism

Historical Context:

• Confucianism and Daoism emerged during China's tumultuous "age of warring states" (ca. 500–221 B.C.E.) in response to societal disorder and turmoil.

  • Both were major philosophical traditions in China, distinguished by their practical, philosophical, and humanistic approaches rather than overt religiosity.

Confucianism:

• Originating from the teachings of Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.), Confucianism aimed at restoring social and political harmony through emphasizing moral behavior.

  • Compiled in the Analects

  • Deals with how to restore political and social order, not with philosophical or religious topics

• Filial Piety: importance of benevolence within unequal relationships, such as those between rulers and subjects, husband and wife, father and son,

• Confucianism maintained a secular stance, with educated elites emphasizing the limited role of magic and spirits in achieving moral development and social cohesion.

Influence on Chinese Life:

• Took shape during the Han Dynasty and became the central element of the civil service examination system.

  • The Chinese dynasty from 206 BCE to 220 CE that emerged after the Qin Dynasty collapsed, establishing political and cultural patterns that lasted into the 20th century.

• Confucianism advocated for the family unit as a model for political governance and highlighted the significance of education and rituals in fostering moral qualities and ethical conduct.

• Over time, Confucianism became deeply entrenched in Chinese elite culture, influencing educational systems, bureaucratic structures, and societal values.

Beyond China:

• Confucian principles extended their influence beyond China, attracting elites in neighboring East Asian civilizations such as Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.

• In Japan, for instance, Confucian principles were incorporated into governance, emphasizing the moral quality of rulers as foundational for societal harmony.

Daoism:

• A Chinese philosophy / popular religion that Advocates a simple and unpretentious way of living in alignment with the natural world, founded by legendary figure Laozi

  • Heavily countered Confucian ideals of education and moral improvement as useless.

  • Urged withdrawal from social life into nature; simplicity in living

• Daoism and Confucianism were seen as complementary by elite Chinese due to the concept of yin and yang, believing in the unity of opposites.

  • Scholar-officials could practice Confucian governance by day and Daoist principles in private.

• Daoism influenced both elite and ordinary Chinese culture, incorporating practices like meditation, magic, and seeking immortality.

Judaism and Christianity

Judaism:

• The monotheistic religion developed in the Middle East by the Hebrews, emphasizing a sole personal God, whose name was Yahweh, with concerns for social justice.

• Hebrew Bible - Torah, miracles, laws, historical chronicles, poetry, prophecies

• Impact

  • First of major monotheistic faiths

Christianity:

• Based around Jesus of Nazareth, a figure who claimed to be Messiah the Jews had awaited - teachings of devotion to God and love for others

  • A present/artisan "wisdom teacher" and Jewish Mystic whose life, teachings, death, and alleged resurrection gave rise to the new religion of Christianity

  • Jesus was crucified by Roman and Jewish leaders in 30 CE and his followers believe he rose from dead into heaven

• Based on Bible teachings

• Believe Jesus is the Son of God - forgiveness of sins, everlasting life is achievable through him

• The world was created by God, but the world has fallen from God

  • Believers should seek God and care for him and others

Spread of Christianity:

• Saint Paul: An early convert and missionary (ca. 6–67 C.E.) whose missionary journeys in the eastern Roman Empire led to the founding of small Christian communities that included non-Jews.

  • First great popularizer of the religion.

• Christianity spread gradually within the Roman Empire over several centuries after Jesus' death, attracting followers with its inclusive message.

  • The monotheistic nature of Christianity, rejecting other supernatural powers, caused Christians to face persecution, labeled as "atheists" due to their denial of other gods, particularly the cult of the emperors.

  • Eventually became the state religion in 380 C.E. with Emperor Constantine’s conversion.

• Christianity developed an elaborate hierarchical organization, with patriarchs, bishops, and priests, predominantly male, replacing early house churches where women played significant roles.

Fragmentation and Division:

• Despite its spread, Christianity remained fragmented due to differences in language, culture, and political regime.

• Separate church organizations emerged in various regions, leading to theological differences and disputes.

• The division between the eastern and western regions of the Roman Empire, as well as other areas like Egypt, Syria, Persia, Armenia, Ethiopia, and southern India, contributed to the split between Latin (Roman Catholic) and Greek (Eastern Orthodox) branches of Christendom, which persists to the present day.

• By around 600 C.E., the Christian world was geographically extensive but politically and theologically diverse, characterized by fragmentation and division.

Impact: compassion, grace through faith appealed to lower classes and women

• Became most influential religion in Mediterranean basin by 3rd century

• Became official religion of Roman Empire, then branching north and west

• Connection with Roman Empire had profound impact on global culture

Islam

• Cultures: caliphates (Islamic kingdoms), North Africa, central Asia, Europe

• Context:

  • 7th century - Muslims are the believers

  • Allah presented words through prophet Muhammad, whose words were recorded in the Qur’an

  • Salvation is won through submission to God - 5 Pillars of Islam: (1) confession, (2) prayer 5 times a day, (3) charity, (4) fasting during Ramadan, (5) pilgrimage to Mecca

  • 2 groups, Shia and Sunni, who disagreed who should succeed Muhammad

• Impact:

  • Rapidly spread to Middle East

• Significance of Islam:

  • It elevated previously marginal and nomadic Arabs into a central role in world history during the 7th century C.E.

  • The emergence of Islam led to the rapid creation of a vast empire stretching from Spain to India and beyond, encompassing regions such as East and West Africa, India, and Central and Southeast Asia.

• Arabia and Muhammad:

  • Arabia was characterized by pastoralism, settled agricultural communities, and sophisticated commercial cities like Mecca, situated on the periphery of the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires.

  • Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (570–632 C.E.), a trader from Mecca, was the creator of Islam.

    • The Prophet and founder of Islam whose religious revelations became the Quran, bringing a radically monotheistic religion to Arabia and the world.

    • Islam presented Allah as the sole divine being, challenging the polytheistic religion of the Arabs and drawing heavily from Jewish and Christian monotheism.

• Expansion and Division:

  • Arab armies expanded the Islamic state after Muhammad's death, leading to widespread conversion to Islam.

    • Political conflict over succession after Muhammad's death led to civil war and the enduring division between Sunni and Shia branches of Islam.

  • Sunni Islam:

    • A sect of Islam that believes that the Quran is the literal word of God. They believe in electing their religious leaders; that the position is not passed down through the Prophet Muhammad's bloodline.

  • Shia Islam:

    • A sect of Islam that believes that the Quran is the literal word of God. They believe in electing their religious leaders; that the position is not passed down through the Prophet Muhammad's bloodline. The first Caliph or leader chosen by the Sunnis was a friend of the Prophet Muhammad named Abu Bakr as-Siddiq.

• Cultural Unity:

  • Common elements such as the Quran, respect for Muhammad, ritual prayer, and pilgrimage to Mecca bound together the Islamic world culturally.

  • Ulama:

    • Islamic religious scholars, both Sunni and Shia, who shaped and transmitted the court teachings of Islamic civilization.

• Sufism:

  • Sufis emerged as a distinct religious order by the year 1000, representing Islam's mystical dimension.

  • Sufis criticized the scholarly practitioners of the sharia for their emphasis on law and correct behavior.

  • From roughly 1100 to 1800, Sufism was central to mainstream Islam, with many Muslims affiliating with Sufi organizations and adopting their spiritual practices.

Interactions and Encounters:

Empires facilitated communication and borrowing among diverse peoples in Afro-Eurasia.

• Commerce connected Afro-Eurasian regions and parts of the Americas.

• Premodern commerce connected Afro-Eurasian regions and parts of the Americas.

Key Networks:

• Silk Roads: Land-based trade routes that linked many regions of Eurasia. They were named after the most famous product traded along these routes

  • Linked China and the Mediterranean for over 1,500 years.

• Sand Roads: A term used to describe the routes of the trans-Saharan trade.

  • Linked interior West Africa to the Mediterranean and North African world

• Sea Roads: The world's largest sea-based system of communication and exchange before 1500.

  • Centered in India, it stretched from Southern China to Eastern Africa.