1.6 (click flashcards here)

As the Roman Empire declined in power in the 5th and 6th centuries, Western Europe entered the Middle Ages, sometimes called the medieval period. Throughout Europe, trade declined, intellectual life receded, and the united Roman state was replaced by smaller kingdoms that frequently fought one another for control of territory. In response, European kings, lords, and peasants worked out agreements to provide for common defense. Only the Roman Catholic Church remained powerful in most of Europe from Roman times to the 16th century.

However, between 1000 to 1450, learning and trade began to revive in Europe, entering an era known as the High Middle Ages. Scholars like Peter Abelard studied classical thinkers such as Aristotle and sometimes criticized the Church but remained faithful throughout their lives.

Feudalism: Political and Social Systems

European civilization in the Middle Ages was characterized by a decentralized political organization based on a system of exchanges of land for loyalty known as feudalism. Lacking a strong government, people required protection from bandits, rival lords, and invaders like the Vikings. The core of feudalism was a system of mutual obligations:

• A monarch granted land, called fiefs, to lords, who became the king's vassals and owed service to him.

• Lords provided land to knights, who became vassals and pledged to fight for the lord or king.

• Lords provided land and protection to peasants, who were obligated to farm the land, provide crops and livestock, and obey orders.

Feudalism provided security, equipment for warriors, and land to lords. The entire system was based on agriculture, measuring wealth in land rather than cash. The feudal system included a code of chivalry, an unwritten set of rules focusing on honor, courtesy, and bravery, which, while protecting women, did not significantly elevate their societal status.

Manorial System

Large fiefs or estates, called manors, provided economic self-sufficiency and defense. Manors produced everything the residents required, limiting trade needs. Many serfs spent their lives on a single manor, often unaware of events beyond it. Manor grounds included small villages, churches, blacksmiths, and mills. Serfs were tied to the land and could not travel or marry without their lord's permission, paying tribute in crops, labor, or coins. Agriculture became more efficient, and the three-field system became commonplace, rotating crops to improve soil fertility.

Political Trends in the Later Middle Ages

In the later Middle Ages, monarchies became powerful at the expense of feudal lords, establishing bureaucracies and militaries. The monarchs’ lands in England and France began taking on Modern European characteristics. King Philip II of France developed a real bureaucracy, and the first Estates-General was convened under King Philip IV, which included representatives from the clergy, nobility, and commoners but had little power.

Holy Roman Empire

Holy Roman Emperor Otto I was crowned in 962, establishing a link to Charlemagne. Otto's successors faced power struggles over lay investiture with the papacy, resolved in the Concordat of Worms in 1122, granting Church autonomy from secular authorities.

Norman England

In 1066, William the Conqueror successfully invaded England. He ruled a tightly organized feudal system and faced opposition from nobles, leading to the Magna Carta's signing in 1215, which required respect for specific rights. The English Parliament was formed in 1265, increasing noble rights but not those of the general population.

The Hundred Years' War

From 1337 to 1453, England and France fought the Hundred Years' War. English archers helped win early battles, fostering national identity and demonstrating the use of gunpowder weapons.

Religion and the Crusades

The church significantly influenced societal and political landscapes. The Crusades, starting in 1095, were driven by religious, social, and economic pressures, with the First Crusade resulting in the conquest of Jerusalem. However, Muslims regained control in 1187. The Fourth Crusade diverted to sack Zara and Constantinople instead of reaching the Holy Land.

Economic and Social Changes

The late Middle Ages saw a shift from local self-sufficiency to a focus on long-distance commerce. The middle class, known as the bourgeoisie, began growing, altering social dynamics. Urban areas expanded due to agricultural surplus, although the Black Death significantly impacted the population and labor availability.

Discrimination and Social Structures

Jews and Muslims faced discrimination during the Middle Ages, with Jews fleeing to Eastern Europe due to expulsions. Despite being marginalized, both groups contributed economically and socially.

Gender Roles

Women’s rights eroded as society shifted towards urbanization, with fewer receiving education, though some managed manor accounts and were involved in religious orders.

Renaissance

The Renaissance emerged from this period of change, fostering a revival of classical literature, art, and culture, significantly influencing education, technology, and society in Europe.

The Origins of Russia

During the late Middle Ages in Eastern Europe, extensive trade in furs, fish,

and grain connected people from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean to Central

Asia. The city-state at the center of this trade was Kievan Rus, based in

what is today Kiev, Ukraine. Because it adopted the Orthodox Christianity,

it maintained closer cultural relationships with Byzantium than with Roman

Catholic Europe. In the 13th century, the Mongols overtook this region, so it

developed even more separately from of the rest of Europe. (See Topic 2.2.)

The Mongols required local nobles to collect taxes for them. As these

nobles grew wealthy in their role, they began to resist Mongol rule. In the late

15th century, under the leadership of a Moscow-based ruler known as Ivan

the Great, the region became independent of the Mongols. This marked the

beginning of the modern state of Russia.