Intro to crim justice final exam until 4/3

CHAPTER 9: THE COURTS

FEDERAL COURT SYSTEM

The federal judiciary is rooted in Article III, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution, which establishes the Supreme Court and gives Congress authority to create inferior courts. The Judiciary Act of 1789 implemented this framework by creating a three-tiered structure: U.S. District Courts (trial courts), U.S. Circuit Courts (intermediate appellate courts), and the U.S. Supreme Court. The Court of Appeals Act of 1891 later created permanent appellate courts, reducing the Supreme Court's caseload.

Federal jurisdiction is laid out in Article III, Section 2, giving courts authority to hear cases involving federal laws, treaties, and disputes involving states or foreign nations. The Federal Magistrate Act of 1968 introduced U.S. Magistrate Judges to handle routine matters like issuing warrants and conducting initial hearings.

U.S. District Courts are trial-level courts with jurisdiction over federal criminal and civil matters. Judges are nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate, and serve for life. Caseloads have increased significantly since 1990, leading to longer wait times and pressure on court resources.

U.S. Courts of Appeal review lower court decisions for legal error. These courts do not retry cases but examine the legal procedures and rulings. Appeals can be dismissed as frivolous, considered ritualistic, or taken seriously as nonconsensual. Harmless errors do not affect outcomes; reversible errors do and may lead to a retrial or dismissal.

The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest appellate court and derives its authority from the Constitution. It selects cases through a writ of certiorari, granted by at least four justices. If the Court is evenly split, the lower court's decision stands. Types of opinions include majority, dissenting, and concurring. The Court plays a key role in shaping national law through judicial review.

STATE COURT SYSTEM

Courts of Limited Jurisdiction handle minor criminal cases, traffic violations, and civil disputes under a certain monetary threshold. They are often burdened with high caseloads, lack formal procedures, and may have judges without legal training.

Courts of General Jurisdiction handle more serious criminal and civil cases. These courts have broad authority and use formal legal procedures. They often hear appeals from lower courts.

State Appellate Courts include intermediate courts and courts of last resort (state supreme courts). These courts do not conduct trials but review procedures and rulings of lower courts. A state case may enter the federal system if it involves a federal constitutional issue. However, under the doctrine of abstention, federal courts may decline to hear cases already in progress in state courts unless there's a compelling reason.

PROBLEM-SOLVING COURTS & RESTORATIVE JUSTICE

Restorative justice emphasizes repairing harm caused by crime rather than focusing solely on punishment. It involves victims, offenders, and the community in a process that encourages accountability and healing.

Dispute Resolution Centers are informal forums for mediating minor disputes without legal penalties.

Community Courts focus on quality-of-life crimes in specific neighborhoods and often include services like drug treatment or mental health support. Both share a restorative justice philosophy but differ in scope and institutional support.

Problem-Solving Courts—such as Drug Courts and Domestic Violence Courts—aim to address underlying issues driving criminal behavior. Drug Courts offer treatment in lieu of incarceration and have been shown to reduce recidivism. Domestic Violence Courts coordinate services for victims while holding offenders accountable.

COURTROOM WORKGROUP & DECISION-MAKING (CH. 9)

The courtroom workgroup consists of judges, prosecutors, and defense attorneys, who interact regularly and develop shared norms that influence case outcomes. These relationships can lead to informal negotiations, plea deals, and expedited case handling.

Judges must be qualified attorneys and are selected through appointment, election, or merit selection depending on the jurisdiction. They preside over trials, make rulings on legal questions, and ensure due process.

Prosecutors are powerful figures who decide which cases to charge and what charges to file. They are selected via election or appointment and represent the state. Factors affecting charging decisions include legal sufficiency, evidence strength, victim cooperation, and extra-legal factors like politics or public opinion.

• Brady Rule requires prosecutors to disclose exculpatory evidence.

• United States v. Bagley expanded this, requiring disclosure of any evidence that could affect a trial outcome.

• Prosecutors have broad immunity from civil lawsuits for actions taken within their official role.

Defense Attorneys protect the rights of the accused. The 6th Amendment guarantees the right to counsel.

• Powell v. Alabama (1932): Indigents in capital cases must be provided counsel.

• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Extended right to counsel to all felony defendants.

• Argersinger v. Hamlin (1972): Extended to any case involving potential jail time.

• Scott v. Illinois (1979): No jail = no required counsel.

• Alabama v. Shelton (2002): Even suspended sentences require counsel if jail time is possible.

Indigent Defense Systems include:

• Assigned Counsel: Private attorneys paid per case; may lack consistency.

• Public Defenders: Salaried attorneys; often overworked but experienced.

• Contract Systems: Firms contracted to handle all indigent cases; risk of low-quality representation.

Defense ethics involve representing clients zealously within legal bounds. Public opinion often misunderstands this duty, leading to criticism of defense attorneys representing guilty individuals.

CHAPTER 10: PRETRIAL ACTIVITIES AND TRIAL

Arrest to Initial Appearance (pp. 317-325)

After arrest, the defendant must be brought before a judge for an initial appearance, usually within 48 hours. The judge informs them of charges, their rights, and may set bail.

U.S. v. Salerno (1987): Upheld the use of preventive detention under the Bail Reform Act. The Court ruled that public safety is a legitimate reason to deny bail if the defendant poses a danger.

Preliminary Hearing to Pretrial Motions (pp. 325-334)

A preliminary hearing determines whether there is probable cause to proceed to trial. The prosecution must show enough evidence to support the charges.

Plea Bargaining resolves most criminal cases. The defendant pleads guilty in exchange for reduced charges or sentencing. While efficient, it raises concerns about coercion, especially for indigent defendants facing high trial risks.

Pretrial Motions may seek to suppress evidence (e.g., via a motion to suppress), request a change of venue, or dismiss charges. These motions shape the legal terrain before trial and can strongly influence outcomes.

Jury System: The right to a jury trial applies in most serious criminal cases. Jurors are selected through voir dire, and both sides may use peremptory challenges and challenges for cause to strike potential jurors. Concerns persist about bias, representativeness, and the jury’s ability to understand complex legal issues.