AP World 1.6 - Developments in Europe
Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and the core beliefs and practices of these religions continued to shape societies in Europe.
Europe was politically fragmented and characterized by decentralized monarchies, feudalism, and the manorial system.
Europe was largely an agricultural society dependent on free and coerced labor, including serfdom.
Roman imperial order disappeared by 500 CE
Roads fell into disrepair, cities decayed, long-distance trade dissolved
Roman order replaced by highly localized society: fragmented, decentralized, and competitive
Latin West did become fully Christian, but it was a gradual process lasting centuries
It was Roman Catholic - centered on the pope
Far more rural than Byzantium
Slowly emerged as dynamic, expansive and innovative third wave civilization - combining elements of Greco-Roman past with culture of Germanic and Celtic peoples
550 C.E. to 900 C.E. Europe had a lot of problems
Center of the post-classical West lay in France, the Low Countries, and southern and western Germany, with England eventually drawn in as well
With weak states and little more than subsistence agriculture, intellectual activity declined
Frequent invasions weakened the West
Raids by seagoing Vikings from Scandinavia
Roman legacy still persisted in military organization, laws, fines, and penalties
Charlemagne (ruler of the Carolingian Empire) tried to recreate the unity of the Roman Empire, but failed
decentralized society emerged - feudalism
thousands of independent, self-sufficient, and isolated landed estates or manors was exercised by a warrior elite of landowning lords
They were in constant competition
In time, lesser lords swore allegiance to greater lords or kings thus becoming their vassals
Roman slavery gave way to serfdom
the Church also filled the void left by the Roman Empire
hierarchical organization of popes, bishops, priests, and monasteries - modeled on the Roman Empire
Took over political, administrative, educational, and welfare functions
Latin was the language of the Church
Church became wealthy
“top down” strategy of converting local “pagan” kings therefore quickly giving them access to the king’s subjects
Were flexible in adopting some pagan traditions to assist in winning pagan converts
By 1100 most of Europe had embraced Christianity
Rulers provided protection for the papacy and strong encouragement for the faith
In return, Church offered religious legitimacy for the powerful and prosperous.
Rulers drawn to the Church because it gave legitimacy and desired ties to Roman Empire with its organization, wealth, and ceremonies
By 1000, invasions (like Muslim armies from south, and Hungarian invasions from the east and Viking incursions from the north) - finally ended
This provided security and stability for Europe to flourish
Warming trend after 750 also helped (more agriculture = surplus = increased population)
This led to High Middle Ages (1000-1300) - times of expansion and growth
agricultural growth, increased trade, return to cities
Cities & towns grew: London, Paris, Venice, Constantinople, Cordoba (Muslim Spain), Hangzhou (Song dynasty capital)
Traded: wood, beeswax (for candles), furs, wheat, salt, cloth, and wine
Increased trade led to more opportunities for women:
worked as weavers, brewers, midwives, retail, laundering, spinning, and prostitution
New culture was created combining remnants of Greco-Roman culture, the culture of Germanic tribes, and influences from the Roman Catholic Church
Latin was used in the Church and all literate people
Medieval scholars like Thomas Aquinas attempted to reconcile the natural philosophy of the classical world with Christian beliefs
New forms of coerced labor appeared, including serfdom in Europe and Japan and the elaboration of the mit’a in the Inca Empire. Free peasants resisted attempts to raise dues and taxes by staging revolts. The demand for slaves for both military and domestic purposes increased, particularly in central Eurasia, parts of Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean.
In some places, new forms of governance emerged, including those developed in various Islamic states (Abbasids, Muslim Iberia, Delhi Sultanates), the Mongol khanates, new Buddhist states in South, East, and Southeast Asia, city-states (Italian peninsula, East Africa, SE Asia), and decentralized government (feudalism) in Europe and Japan.
Feudal political structure was paralleled by manorialism
Characterized by local agricultural estates that were virtually self-sufficient and worked by serfs.
Manorialism = system of economic and political relations between landlords and their personal laborers
Most people were serfs, living on self-sufficient agricultural estates called manors
Serfs received some protection from landlords; in return they turned over part of their goods to remain on the land
Originated in late Roman Empire – strengthened by decline of trade and the lack of larger political structures
From 6th onward, need to support armed men and horses for heavy cavalry (knights) without much cash or trade revenues led to the creation of the feudal system
Feudalism = decentralized political arrangement
military elite emerged
lords gave land (to be worked by peasants or serfs) to their retainers in exchange for mutual obligations of defense and loyalty = LAND FOR LOYALTY!!!
basis of society was agriculture and labor was tied the land as serfs
serfs could not be sold but were passed along with the land as chattel
Greater lords provided protection and aid to lesser lords, called vassals
Vassals in turn owed their lords military service, some goods or payment, and advice to the greater lords
Feudalism was also present in Japan
Feudalism describes the relationship between the king and his nobles in medieval Europe.
Manorialism describes the relationship between a noble and his peasants in medieval Europe.
Feudalism was thus primarily political and military, while manorialism was more economic and social.
-Latin for "first born," the ancient rule from feudal England (except in the County of Kent) that the oldest son would inherit the entire estate of his parents (or nearest ancestor), and, if there was no male heir, the daughters would take (receive the property) in equal shares.
-The intent was to preserve larger properties from being broken up into small holdings, which might weaken the power of nobles.
Women had more freedom in earlier part of the period, both in convents (through the Catholic Church) and in craft guilds (for spinning, weaving, brewing, and baking)
Had obligations to their feudal lord to be paid by labor
By High Middle Ages, women were pushed out of most of the craft guilds, except for spinning and midwifery (and prostitution)
Lost much of the independence that they previously enjoyed in convents
The diversification of labor organization that began with settled agriculture continued in this period. Forms of labor organization included:
Free peasant agriculture
Nomadic pastoralism
Craft production and guild organization
Various forms of coerced and unfree labor
Government-imposed labor
Military obligations
The Craft Guilds were formed in a similar way to the Merchant Guilds. A group of tradesmen or craftsmen engaged in the same occupation joined together. There were Craft Guilds for every trade or craft performed within a Medieval city or town. These trades or crafts included:
Masons
Carpenters
Painters
Cloth Makers
Tanners
Bakers
Shoemakers, or cobblers
Candle makers
The Craft Guilds applied rules to the way in which trade was conducted during the Middle Ages. These rules were included in the charters of the Craft Guilds and included:
A ban on, or fines imposed, on any illicit trading by non Craft Guild members
Fines were imposed on any Craft Guild members who violated the charter of their particular Craft Guild
Members of the Craft Guilds were protected and any member who fell sick was cared for by the guild. Burials of guild members were arranged and the Craft Guilds undertook to care for any orphans
The members of Craft Guilds also provided protection of their horses, wagons, and goods when moving about the land as travelling during the Middle Ages was dangerous
The Craft Guilds ensured that their craft or trade effectively became a 'closed shop' or monopoly preventing any outside competition. Prices were fixed between members of the Craft Guilds. And the Craft Guilds ensured that high standards of quality were maintained. The number of Craft Guild members were also regulated, allowing a restricted membership in order to ensure that the numbers of Craft Guilds did not exceed the business requirements. As time went by the Craft Guilds became as important in the Medieval towns and cities as the Merchant Guilds and the members of the Craft Guilds demanded that they also shared in civic duties and leadership.
9th century a better plow (moldboard) – a curved iron plate, was introduced that allowed deeper turning of the hard, European soil
Also developed the three-field system where only a third of the land was left unplanted each year, to regain fertility.
Champa Rice: a quick-maturing, drought resistant rice that can allow two harvests, of sixty days each in one growing season.
Horse Collar: The horse collar was important in the development of Europe, as the replacement of oxen with horses for ploughing boosted the economy, reduced reliance on subsistence farming, and allowed the development of early industry, education, and the arts in the rise of market-based towns.
“medieval expansion” of Christendom took place as the Byzantine world was contracting
Sharp reversal of their earlier roles where Byzantines were more advanced and interested in expansion
By 13th and 14th centuries Europeans had direct contact with India, China, and Mongolia
Also helped by end of Viking raids (they were interested in transatlantic ventures after 1000 CE - Newfoundland in North America)
Nothing more dramatically revealed European expansiveness than the religious “hold wars” of the crusades, starting in 1095
For Europeans, the Crusades were wars undertaken at God’s command and authorized by the pope
Required participants to swear a vow and in return offered an indulgence (removed penalties for any confessed sins)
Crusading drew on both Christian piety and warrior values of the elite
Most famous Crusades were aimed at claiming Jerusalem and holy places associated with the life of Jesus from Islamic control
Carved out four small Christian states, the last of which was recaptured by Muslim forces in 1291
Demonstrated growing European capacity for organization, finance, transportation, and recruitment ⇒ impressive b/c they had no real central direction!
Also demonstrated cruelty → slaughter of many Muslims and Jews
Military campaign by western European forces to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim control.
Conceived by Pope Urban II following an appeal from the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos, around 60,000 soldiers and at least half again of non-combatants set off on their quest.
After campaigns in Asia Minor and the Middle East, great cities such as Nicaea and Antioch were recaptured and then, on 15 July 1099 CE, Jerusalem itself.
Many more crusades would follow, objectives would widen, as would the field of conflict, so that even Constantinople would come under attack in subsequent campaigns.
Pope Innocent III wanted to retake Jerusalem from its current Muslim overlords.
However, in a bizarre combination of mistakes, financial constraints, and Venetian trading ambitions, the target ended up being Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire and the greatest Christian city in the world.
Sacked on 12 April 1204 CE, Constantinople was stripped of its riches, relics, and artworks, and the Byzantine Empire was divided up between Venice and its allies.
The Fourth Crusade thus gained its infamous reputation as the most cynical and profit-seeking of all the crusades.
Crusades had little lasting impact (politically or religiously) in the Middle East
European power was not strong or long-lasting enough to induce conversion
Invasions of Turkic-speaking peoples and Mongols were much more significant
Had more consequences for Europe
Spain, Sicily, and Baltic region brought permanently into the world of Christendom
Byzantine Empire further weakened by sack of Constantinople
Europeans picked up a taste for many Asian luxury goods
Europeans learned techniques of producing sugar
Muslim scholarship (along with Greek learning it incorporated) flowed into Europe
Opened channels of trade, technological transfer, and intellectual exchange
Rift between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism deepened (still a big divide in the Christian world)
Changes in trade networks resulted from and stimulated increasing productive capacity, with important implications for social and gender structures and environmental processes. Productivity rose in both agriculture and industry. Rising productivity supported population growth and urbanization but also strained environmental resources and at times caused dramatic demographic swings. Shifts in production and the increased volume of trade also stimulated new labor practices, including adaptation of existing patterns of free and coerced labor. Social and gender structures evolved in response to these changes.
System of education and mode of inquiry that originated in northern Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries
The term is alternatively applied to a variety of Western beliefs, methods, and philosophies that place central emphasis on the human realm.
Emphasis on human form and reason over religion and assumed truths
Italian explorer
Traveled to China, forcibly lived in the Yuan Dynasty under Kublai Khan
Wrote a book about his travels
Inspired more travel and trade as a result of people reading about his travels
Climate interval that occurred from the early 14th century through the mid-19th century, when mountain glaciers expanded at several locations, including the European Alps, New Zealand, Alaska, and the southern Andes, and mean annual temperatures declined
In China, then as now the most populous country in the world, the Ming dynasty fell in 1644, undermined by, among other things, erratic harvests.
In Europe, rivers and lakes and harbors froze, leading to phenomena such as the “frost fairs” on the River Thames
Birds iced up and fell from the sky; men and women died of hypothermia; the King of France’s beard froze solid while he slept.
When peasants had no surplus grain, this system collapsed. If local crops were failing, trading at a distance, to bring goods from farther afield, was critical.
Money, and the ability to buy and sell with cash or its equivalent, took on a larger role.
The first modern state in Russia was founded in 862 by King Rurik of the Rus, who was made the ruler of Novgorod.
Some years later, the Rus conquered the city of Kiev and started the kingdom of the Kievan Rus.
Over the 10th and 11th century the Kievan Rus became a powerful empire in Europe reaching its peak under Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav I the Wise. During the 13th century the Mongols led by Batu Khan overran the area and wiped out the Kievan Rus.
In the 14th century the Grand Duchy of Moscow rose to power. It became the head of the Eastern Roman Empire and Ivan IV the Terrible crowned himself the first Tsar of Russia in 1547.
In 1613, Mikhail Romanov established the Romanov dynasty that would rule Russia for many years.
Under the rule of Tsar Peter the Great (1689-1725), the Russian empire continued to expand. It became a major power throughout Europe. Peter the Great moved the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg
Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and the core beliefs and practices of these religions continued to shape societies in Europe.
Europe was politically fragmented and characterized by decentralized monarchies, feudalism, and the manorial system.
Europe was largely an agricultural society dependent on free and coerced labor, including serfdom.
Roman imperial order disappeared by 500 CE
Roads fell into disrepair, cities decayed, long-distance trade dissolved
Roman order replaced by highly localized society: fragmented, decentralized, and competitive
Latin West did become fully Christian, but it was a gradual process lasting centuries
It was Roman Catholic - centered on the pope
Far more rural than Byzantium
Slowly emerged as dynamic, expansive and innovative third wave civilization - combining elements of Greco-Roman past with culture of Germanic and Celtic peoples
550 C.E. to 900 C.E. Europe had a lot of problems
Center of the post-classical West lay in France, the Low Countries, and southern and western Germany, with England eventually drawn in as well
With weak states and little more than subsistence agriculture, intellectual activity declined
Frequent invasions weakened the West
Raids by seagoing Vikings from Scandinavia
Roman legacy still persisted in military organization, laws, fines, and penalties
Charlemagne (ruler of the Carolingian Empire) tried to recreate the unity of the Roman Empire, but failed
decentralized society emerged - feudalism
thousands of independent, self-sufficient, and isolated landed estates or manors was exercised by a warrior elite of landowning lords
They were in constant competition
In time, lesser lords swore allegiance to greater lords or kings thus becoming their vassals
Roman slavery gave way to serfdom
the Church also filled the void left by the Roman Empire
hierarchical organization of popes, bishops, priests, and monasteries - modeled on the Roman Empire
Took over political, administrative, educational, and welfare functions
Latin was the language of the Church
Church became wealthy
“top down” strategy of converting local “pagan” kings therefore quickly giving them access to the king’s subjects
Were flexible in adopting some pagan traditions to assist in winning pagan converts
By 1100 most of Europe had embraced Christianity
Rulers provided protection for the papacy and strong encouragement for the faith
In return, Church offered religious legitimacy for the powerful and prosperous.
Rulers drawn to the Church because it gave legitimacy and desired ties to Roman Empire with its organization, wealth, and ceremonies
By 1000, invasions (like Muslim armies from south, and Hungarian invasions from the east and Viking incursions from the north) - finally ended
This provided security and stability for Europe to flourish
Warming trend after 750 also helped (more agriculture = surplus = increased population)
This led to High Middle Ages (1000-1300) - times of expansion and growth
agricultural growth, increased trade, return to cities
Cities & towns grew: London, Paris, Venice, Constantinople, Cordoba (Muslim Spain), Hangzhou (Song dynasty capital)
Traded: wood, beeswax (for candles), furs, wheat, salt, cloth, and wine
Increased trade led to more opportunities for women:
worked as weavers, brewers, midwives, retail, laundering, spinning, and prostitution
New culture was created combining remnants of Greco-Roman culture, the culture of Germanic tribes, and influences from the Roman Catholic Church
Latin was used in the Church and all literate people
Medieval scholars like Thomas Aquinas attempted to reconcile the natural philosophy of the classical world with Christian beliefs
New forms of coerced labor appeared, including serfdom in Europe and Japan and the elaboration of the mit’a in the Inca Empire. Free peasants resisted attempts to raise dues and taxes by staging revolts. The demand for slaves for both military and domestic purposes increased, particularly in central Eurasia, parts of Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean.
In some places, new forms of governance emerged, including those developed in various Islamic states (Abbasids, Muslim Iberia, Delhi Sultanates), the Mongol khanates, new Buddhist states in South, East, and Southeast Asia, city-states (Italian peninsula, East Africa, SE Asia), and decentralized government (feudalism) in Europe and Japan.
Feudal political structure was paralleled by manorialism
Characterized by local agricultural estates that were virtually self-sufficient and worked by serfs.
Manorialism = system of economic and political relations between landlords and their personal laborers
Most people were serfs, living on self-sufficient agricultural estates called manors
Serfs received some protection from landlords; in return they turned over part of their goods to remain on the land
Originated in late Roman Empire – strengthened by decline of trade and the lack of larger political structures
From 6th onward, need to support armed men and horses for heavy cavalry (knights) without much cash or trade revenues led to the creation of the feudal system
Feudalism = decentralized political arrangement
military elite emerged
lords gave land (to be worked by peasants or serfs) to their retainers in exchange for mutual obligations of defense and loyalty = LAND FOR LOYALTY!!!
basis of society was agriculture and labor was tied the land as serfs
serfs could not be sold but were passed along with the land as chattel
Greater lords provided protection and aid to lesser lords, called vassals
Vassals in turn owed their lords military service, some goods or payment, and advice to the greater lords
Feudalism was also present in Japan
Feudalism describes the relationship between the king and his nobles in medieval Europe.
Manorialism describes the relationship between a noble and his peasants in medieval Europe.
Feudalism was thus primarily political and military, while manorialism was more economic and social.
-Latin for "first born," the ancient rule from feudal England (except in the County of Kent) that the oldest son would inherit the entire estate of his parents (or nearest ancestor), and, if there was no male heir, the daughters would take (receive the property) in equal shares.
-The intent was to preserve larger properties from being broken up into small holdings, which might weaken the power of nobles.
Women had more freedom in earlier part of the period, both in convents (through the Catholic Church) and in craft guilds (for spinning, weaving, brewing, and baking)
Had obligations to their feudal lord to be paid by labor
By High Middle Ages, women were pushed out of most of the craft guilds, except for spinning and midwifery (and prostitution)
Lost much of the independence that they previously enjoyed in convents
The diversification of labor organization that began with settled agriculture continued in this period. Forms of labor organization included:
Free peasant agriculture
Nomadic pastoralism
Craft production and guild organization
Various forms of coerced and unfree labor
Government-imposed labor
Military obligations
The Craft Guilds were formed in a similar way to the Merchant Guilds. A group of tradesmen or craftsmen engaged in the same occupation joined together. There were Craft Guilds for every trade or craft performed within a Medieval city or town. These trades or crafts included:
Masons
Carpenters
Painters
Cloth Makers
Tanners
Bakers
Shoemakers, or cobblers
Candle makers
The Craft Guilds applied rules to the way in which trade was conducted during the Middle Ages. These rules were included in the charters of the Craft Guilds and included:
A ban on, or fines imposed, on any illicit trading by non Craft Guild members
Fines were imposed on any Craft Guild members who violated the charter of their particular Craft Guild
Members of the Craft Guilds were protected and any member who fell sick was cared for by the guild. Burials of guild members were arranged and the Craft Guilds undertook to care for any orphans
The members of Craft Guilds also provided protection of their horses, wagons, and goods when moving about the land as travelling during the Middle Ages was dangerous
The Craft Guilds ensured that their craft or trade effectively became a 'closed shop' or monopoly preventing any outside competition. Prices were fixed between members of the Craft Guilds. And the Craft Guilds ensured that high standards of quality were maintained. The number of Craft Guild members were also regulated, allowing a restricted membership in order to ensure that the numbers of Craft Guilds did not exceed the business requirements. As time went by the Craft Guilds became as important in the Medieval towns and cities as the Merchant Guilds and the members of the Craft Guilds demanded that they also shared in civic duties and leadership.
9th century a better plow (moldboard) – a curved iron plate, was introduced that allowed deeper turning of the hard, European soil
Also developed the three-field system where only a third of the land was left unplanted each year, to regain fertility.
Champa Rice: a quick-maturing, drought resistant rice that can allow two harvests, of sixty days each in one growing season.
Horse Collar: The horse collar was important in the development of Europe, as the replacement of oxen with horses for ploughing boosted the economy, reduced reliance on subsistence farming, and allowed the development of early industry, education, and the arts in the rise of market-based towns.
“medieval expansion” of Christendom took place as the Byzantine world was contracting
Sharp reversal of their earlier roles where Byzantines were more advanced and interested in expansion
By 13th and 14th centuries Europeans had direct contact with India, China, and Mongolia
Also helped by end of Viking raids (they were interested in transatlantic ventures after 1000 CE - Newfoundland in North America)
Nothing more dramatically revealed European expansiveness than the religious “hold wars” of the crusades, starting in 1095
For Europeans, the Crusades were wars undertaken at God’s command and authorized by the pope
Required participants to swear a vow and in return offered an indulgence (removed penalties for any confessed sins)
Crusading drew on both Christian piety and warrior values of the elite
Most famous Crusades were aimed at claiming Jerusalem and holy places associated with the life of Jesus from Islamic control
Carved out four small Christian states, the last of which was recaptured by Muslim forces in 1291
Demonstrated growing European capacity for organization, finance, transportation, and recruitment ⇒ impressive b/c they had no real central direction!
Also demonstrated cruelty → slaughter of many Muslims and Jews
Military campaign by western European forces to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim control.
Conceived by Pope Urban II following an appeal from the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos, around 60,000 soldiers and at least half again of non-combatants set off on their quest.
After campaigns in Asia Minor and the Middle East, great cities such as Nicaea and Antioch were recaptured and then, on 15 July 1099 CE, Jerusalem itself.
Many more crusades would follow, objectives would widen, as would the field of conflict, so that even Constantinople would come under attack in subsequent campaigns.
Pope Innocent III wanted to retake Jerusalem from its current Muslim overlords.
However, in a bizarre combination of mistakes, financial constraints, and Venetian trading ambitions, the target ended up being Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire and the greatest Christian city in the world.
Sacked on 12 April 1204 CE, Constantinople was stripped of its riches, relics, and artworks, and the Byzantine Empire was divided up between Venice and its allies.
The Fourth Crusade thus gained its infamous reputation as the most cynical and profit-seeking of all the crusades.
Crusades had little lasting impact (politically or religiously) in the Middle East
European power was not strong or long-lasting enough to induce conversion
Invasions of Turkic-speaking peoples and Mongols were much more significant
Had more consequences for Europe
Spain, Sicily, and Baltic region brought permanently into the world of Christendom
Byzantine Empire further weakened by sack of Constantinople
Europeans picked up a taste for many Asian luxury goods
Europeans learned techniques of producing sugar
Muslim scholarship (along with Greek learning it incorporated) flowed into Europe
Opened channels of trade, technological transfer, and intellectual exchange
Rift between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism deepened (still a big divide in the Christian world)
Changes in trade networks resulted from and stimulated increasing productive capacity, with important implications for social and gender structures and environmental processes. Productivity rose in both agriculture and industry. Rising productivity supported population growth and urbanization but also strained environmental resources and at times caused dramatic demographic swings. Shifts in production and the increased volume of trade also stimulated new labor practices, including adaptation of existing patterns of free and coerced labor. Social and gender structures evolved in response to these changes.
System of education and mode of inquiry that originated in northern Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries
The term is alternatively applied to a variety of Western beliefs, methods, and philosophies that place central emphasis on the human realm.
Emphasis on human form and reason over religion and assumed truths
Italian explorer
Traveled to China, forcibly lived in the Yuan Dynasty under Kublai Khan
Wrote a book about his travels
Inspired more travel and trade as a result of people reading about his travels
Climate interval that occurred from the early 14th century through the mid-19th century, when mountain glaciers expanded at several locations, including the European Alps, New Zealand, Alaska, and the southern Andes, and mean annual temperatures declined
In China, then as now the most populous country in the world, the Ming dynasty fell in 1644, undermined by, among other things, erratic harvests.
In Europe, rivers and lakes and harbors froze, leading to phenomena such as the “frost fairs” on the River Thames
Birds iced up and fell from the sky; men and women died of hypothermia; the King of France’s beard froze solid while he slept.
When peasants had no surplus grain, this system collapsed. If local crops were failing, trading at a distance, to bring goods from farther afield, was critical.
Money, and the ability to buy and sell with cash or its equivalent, took on a larger role.
The first modern state in Russia was founded in 862 by King Rurik of the Rus, who was made the ruler of Novgorod.
Some years later, the Rus conquered the city of Kiev and started the kingdom of the Kievan Rus.
Over the 10th and 11th century the Kievan Rus became a powerful empire in Europe reaching its peak under Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav I the Wise. During the 13th century the Mongols led by Batu Khan overran the area and wiped out the Kievan Rus.
In the 14th century the Grand Duchy of Moscow rose to power. It became the head of the Eastern Roman Empire and Ivan IV the Terrible crowned himself the first Tsar of Russia in 1547.
In 1613, Mikhail Romanov established the Romanov dynasty that would rule Russia for many years.
Under the rule of Tsar Peter the Great (1689-1725), the Russian empire continued to expand. It became a major power throughout Europe. Peter the Great moved the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg