The Steppes and Siberia: The Making of a Russian Empire

Russian Empire: A Christian state centered on Moscow that emerged from centuries of Mongol rule in 1480; by 1800, it had expanded into northern Asia and westward into the Baltics and Eastern Europe.

Emergence of the Russian Empire:

• In 1480, a small Russian state centered on Moscow emerged from two centuries of Mongol rule, gradually expanding its territory by incorporating neighboring Russian-speaking cities.

• Despite being located on the remote, cold, and heavily forested eastern fringe of Christendom, Russia became an unlikely contender for constructing a great empire.

• Over the following three centuries, Russia extended its domination over vast expanses of northern Asia, including tundra, forests, and grasslands south and east of Moscow, as well as incorporating numerous Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, Belorussians, and Baltic peoples through westward expansion.

Motivations for Expansion:

• Security concerns played a significant role, as pastoral peoples frequently raided agricultural Russian neighbors and sold captives into slavery, particularly in the grasslands south and east of the Russian heartland.

• Additionally, economic opportunities drove Russian expansion eastward, primarily in the fur trade. The "soft gold" of fur-bearing animals, especially in Siberia, was in high demand on the world market, especially during the Little Ice Age.

Expansion Across Siberia:

• Siberia was sparsely populated, with only about 220,000 inhabitants speaking over 100 languages in the 17th century. These people mainly lived in small-scale societies with limited access to gunpowder weapons.

• The lure of economic opportunities in the fur trade drew Russians across Siberia, despite the lack of threat posed by the scattered indigenous peoples.

• Russian migrants found economic and social improvements in Siberia, including access to more and better land and fewer lords and officials compared to their homeland.

Formation of the Russian Empire:

• Between 1500 and 1800, the Russian Empire took shape, facilitated by the establishment of wooden forts, frontier towns, and trading centers.

• The process of empire-building involved a diverse array of actors, including state officials, merchants, hunters, peasants, churchmen, exiles, criminals, and adventurers.

• Political leaders and educated Russians defined the empire in grandiose terms, emphasizing its role in defending frontiers, enhancing state power, and bringing Christianity, civilization, and enlightenment to "savages."

Impact and Perceptions:

• The empire offered economic and social improvements for Russian migrants, including more and better land and fewer feudal obligations.

• The perception of the empire varied among different groups, from political leaders who viewed it as a means of enhancing state power to those on the receiving end of expansion, who experienced its consequences differently.

Experiencing the Russian Empire

Russian Empire Expansion:

• Conquest and Military Might:

  • Russian military strength, based on modern weaponry and centralized state organization, facilitated conquest of the steppes and Siberia.

  • Indigenous resistance was common, yet Russian forces eventually asserted control over vast territories, including the steppes and Siberia.

• Imposition of Authority on the Indigenous Siberians:

  • Russian authorities demanded oaths of allegiance from native peoples, establishing submission to the tsar.

  • Demand for allegiance and tribute: Native populations required to swear allegiance to the tsar and pay tribute, known as yasak, often in the form of valuable furs like sable.

  • Devastating epidemics: Similar to the Americas, conquest accompanied by diseases such as smallpox and measles, particularly affecting remote Siberian regions with little immunity.

  • Epidemics, conversion to Christianity, and Russification were also part of the empire-building process.

• Impact of Russian Settlement:

  • Influx of Russian settlers overwhelmed native populations, giving lands a distinctly Russian character.

  • Traditional economies were disrupted, and local peoples became dependent on Russian markets for essentials.

  • Russification and assimilation of native peoples into Russian society occurred over time.

• Religious Conversion:

  • Conversion to Christianity: Indigenous peoples intermittently pressured to convert, with incentives like tax breaks and promises of land or cash.

  • Moderate conversion efforts: Unlike Spanish America, Russian conversion efforts less intense, with state tolerance for religious diversity demonstrated by Empress Catherine the Great's policies toward Muslims.

    • Conversion efforts were less intense than in Spanish America, with religious tolerance established by Catherine the Great.

• Demographic Shift:

  • Influx of Russian settlers overwhelmed native populations by the 18th century.

  • By 1720, approximately 700,000 Russians lived in Siberia, reducing native Siberians to 30% of the total population, declining further to 14% by the 19th century.

• Transformation of Land Use:

  • Loss of traditional lands: Russian agricultural settlers encroached on hunting grounds and pasturelands, undermining indigenous economies.

  • Dependence on Russian markets: Natives became reliant on Russian markets for essential goods like grain, sugar, tea, tobacco, and alcohol.

• Pressures on Nomadic Lifestyles:

  • Requirement to pay fees: Pastoralists faced pressure to abandon nomadic ways, including fees and permissions to cross agricultural lands.

  • Indigenous resistance: Kazakh herders protested against imposed fees, asserting traditional rights to land and resources.

• Cultural Assimilation:

  • Interethnic relationships: Intermarriage, prostitution, and sexual abuse led to the emergence of mixed-race offspring, often assimilated into Russian identity.

  • Russification: Many indigenous peoples adopted Russian language and Christianity, disrupting traditional ways of life.

• Incorporation into Russian State:

  • Integration over three centuries: Siberia and the steppes gradually incorporated into the Russian state.

  • Preservation of native populations: Unlike the Americas, native peoples were not driven into reservations or eradicated.

  • Russification of indigenous peoples: Despite preservation, many indigenous groups were Russified, adopting Russian language and customs.

AP Questions:

• How did the Russian Empire transform the lives of the people it conquered?

  • Conquest and Subjugation:

    • Russian military might and state organization enabled the conquest of vast territories.

    • Native peoples were required to pledge allegiance to the Russian Tsar and pay tribute, often in the form of furs.

  • Economic Changes:

    • Native economies reliant on hunting and herding were disrupted as Russian settlers encroached on their lands.

    • Loss of hunting grounds led to dependence on Russian markets for essential goods like grain, sugar, and tobacco.

  • Cultural Assimilation:

    • Interactions between Russians and native populations led to intermarriage and the absorption of mixed-race offspring into Russian society.

    • Many native peoples adopted the Russian language and converted to Christianity, contributing to Russification.

  • Impact on Traditional Livelihoods:

    • Pressure to abandon nomadic lifestyles and pastoralism resulted in conflicts and resistance among native herding communities.

    • Some mixed-race offspring faced social challenges but were generally assimilated into Russian society.

• Compare the empire building in Russia with the empire building of the Spanish in Latin America.

  • Military Conquest:

    • Both the Russian Empire and the Spanish colonization of Latin America involved military conquest and the imposition of imperial authority over indigenous peoples.

    • Conquest was facilitated by superior military technology and tactics, leading to the subjugation of native populations.

  • Cultural Assimilation:

    • Both empires sought to assimilate indigenous populations into their respective cultures.

    • Intermarriage between colonizers and indigenous people occurred, leading to the emergence of mixed-race communities.

    • Religion played a significant role in cultural assimilation, with the spread of Orthodox Christianity in Russia and Catholicism in Latin America.

  • Economic Exploitation:

    • Economic exploitation, for the sake of feeding mercantalist economies, was a common feature of both empires, with the extraction of resources from conquered territories.

    • Spanish colonization in Latin America focused on the exploitation of precious metals, plantation agriculture, and forced labor systems like the encomienda and hacienda.

    • Russian expansion involved the extraction of valuable natural resources such as furs, timber, and minerals from Siberia and other regions.

  • Territorial Expansion:

    • Both empires expanded their territories through aggressive conquest and colonization.

    • Territorial expansion was driven by a combination of strategic, economic, and geopolitical factors.

    • The desire to control key trade routes and access new markets motivated territorial expansion in both cases.

  Differences:

  • Religious Policies:

    • Spanish colonization in Latin America was characterized by a strong emphasis on forced conversion to Catholicism, often through violent means such as the Spanish Inquisition and the destruction of indigenous religious practices.

    • In contrast, Russian expansion showed greater religious tolerance, with the establishment of state agencies to oversee Muslim affairs and the promotion of Orthodox Christianity without the same level of coercion seen in Latin America.

  • Economic Systems:

    • Spanish colonization in Latin America led to the establishment of large-scale plantation economies based on forced labor, particularly of indigenous peoples and later African slaves.

    • Russian expansion focused more on resource extraction and territorial control, with less emphasis on large-scale agricultural production reliant on coerced labor.

  • Social Structures:

    • Spanish colonization in Latin America resulted in the creation of a rigid social hierarchy based on race and ethnicity, with Europeans at the top and indigenous and African populations at the bottom.

    • Russian expansion led to the integration of diverse ethnic groups into the Russian Empire, often through voluntary or forced assimilation, rather than the establishment of a strict racial caste system.

  • Geographical Context:

    • Spanish colonization in Latin America primarily targeted settled agricultural societies with established civilizations, while Russian expansion involved encounters with nomadic pastoral peoples and vast, sparsely populated territories.

    • The terrain and climate of Siberia and northern Asia presented different challenges and opportunities for colonization compared to the tropical environments of Latin America.

• What were the causes of Russian expansion?

  • Security Concerns:

    • Russian expansion eastward was driven by the need to secure borders against raids by pastoral nomadic peoples.

    • The desire to protect agricultural settlements from frequent attacks and slave raids.

  • Economic Motives:

    • Demand for fur-bearing animals, particularly sables, drove Russian expansion into Siberia.

    • Access to natural resources and trading routes motivated territorial expansion.

  • Strategic Interests:

    • Expansion aimed at extending Russian influence and control over vast territories.

    • Strategic dominance over key regions and trade routes in northern Asia and the Pacific Ocean.

  • Cultural and Religious Factors:

    • Spread of Orthodox Christianity and Russian culture to indigenous populations.

    • Desire to assimilate diverse ethnic groups into the Russian Empire and promote Russification.

  • Political Imperatives:

    • Expansion served to enhance the power and prestige of the Russian state and its rulers.

    • Territory acquisition as a means of asserting dominance and maintaining internal stability.

Russians and Empire

The Transformation of Russia:

• Multiethnic Empire: Rise in non-Russian populations, with Slavic-speaking Ukrainians and Belorussians predominant.

  • As the empire grew more multiethnic, the proportion of ethnic Russians within the population decreased, though they maintained political supremacy.

• Demographic Shift: Russians diminished as a proportion of the overall population but kept political control.

• Economic Impact: Empire's wealth (rich agricultural lands, valuable furs, mineral deposits) played a major role in establishing Russia as a European power by the eighteenth century

  • The wealth derived from the empire, including its rich agricultural lands, valuable furs, and mineral deposits, played a crucial role in positioning Russia among the great powers of Europe by the eighteenth century.

Expansion and Westernization:

• Russia's expansion to the west was marked by military conflicts with regional powers such as the Ottoman Empire, Poland, and Sweden, leading to significant territorial gains.

• Initiatives by Peter the Great and Catherine the Great to westernize Russia included administrative reforms, military modernization, the establishment of new educational systems, and cultural shifts towards European norms.

Awareness of Backwardness and Westernization under Peter the Great:

• Recognizing backwardness, leaders like Peter the Great initiated extensive reforms to modernize and westernize Russia.

• Reforms included administrative changes, military modernization, and cultural shifts towards European standards.

• Peter the Great (r. 1689–1725) initiated an extensive program of westernization:

  • Implemented vast administrative reforms to modernize the Russian state.

  • Enlarged and modernized the Russian military forces.

  • Established a new educational system for noble sons.

  • Founded dozens of manufacturing enterprises to promote industrialization.

  • Mandated Russian nobles to adopt European styles of dress and shave their beards.

  • Founded St. Petersburg as a symbol of Russia's connection to the West, aiming to make it Russia’s “window on the West.”

Continuation of Westernization under Catherine the Great:

• Catherine the Great (r. 1762–1796) continued Peter's westernization efforts:

  • Aligned herself with the European Enlightenment and sought to Europeanize Russian cultural and intellectual life.

  • Continued reforms to bridge the gap between Russia and Western Europe, emphasizing modernization and cultural assimilation.

Autocratic State:

• The vastness of the Russian Empire, bordering almost all major agrarian civilizations of outer Eurasia, necessitated a highly militarized state, geared for continuous warfare to maintain its extensive territories.

• The need to govern such a large and diverse empire also reinforced its autocratic nature; only a strong monarchy could effectively unite and manage its vast domains and varied peoples.

AP Questions:

• How did Russia’s westward expansion change Russia? What continuities remained despite these changes?

  • Russia's westward expansion led to significant changes, including territorial growth in the Baltic region, Poland, and Ukraine.

  • Westernization efforts under leaders like Peter the Great and Catherine the Great transformed Russia socially, culturally, and militarily.

  • Changes included administrative reforms, military modernization, educational advancements, and cultural assimilation with European norms.

  • Despite these changes, continuities persisted, such as Russia's multiethnic composition and the dominance of Russian political power within the empire.

  • Additionally, Russia's expansionist policies and military focus remained consistent throughout its history, reflecting a continuity in its geopolitical aspirations.

• What evidence from the text might you use to support the claim that Russia was a “society organized for continuous war”?

  • The context of military rivalries with major European powers underscores Russia's perpetual state of conflict and competition.

  • Russia's acquisition of substantial territories in the Baltic region, Poland, and Ukraine during the late 17th and 18th centuries reflects its expansionist and militaristic tendencies.

  • The extensive westernization efforts under Peter the Great, including military modernization, indicate a society oriented towards maintaining military strength and readiness.

  • The establishment of St. Petersburg as Russia's "window on the West" suggests a strategic move to enhance military and political power through geopolitical positioning.

• Compare the process by which the Russians and the Europeans built their empires.

  • European empires often expanded through colonization, conquest, and exploitation of overseas territories, driven by economic motives such as resource extraction and trade.

    • In contrast, Russian expansion involved territorial expansion into neighboring regions, motivated by geopolitical interests and military rivalries with neighboring powers.

  • While European empires focused on maritime trade routes and overseas colonies, Russian expansion concentrated on contiguous land territories, extending its borders into the Baltic region, Poland, and Ukraine.

  • European colonization often led to the establishment of settler societies and the imposition of colonial governance structures, whereas Russian expansion resulted in the assimilation of conquered peoples into the multiethnic Russian Empire.

  • Both processes involved the imposition of cultural norms and administrative systems, but European colonization placed greater emphasis on religious conversion and cultural assimilation of indigenous populations.