Expansion of Science in the 18th Century

Spread of Scientific Thought:

• Access and Literacy: The Scientific Revolution ideas expanded beyond a small circle of scholars to the general European public in the 18th century.

  • This spread was facilitated by new printing and bookmaking technologies, a growing popular press, increasing literacy rates, and the formation of numerous scientific societies.

• Application to Human Affairs: The principles of human reason and skepticism towards authority, initially applied to the physical universe, began to influence thoughts on human society.

  • Adam Smith, a Scottish economist, applied these ideas to economic laws, proposing that they could lead to beneficial societal outcomes.

    • His 1776 book, titled Wealth of Nations, would be the groundwork for Capitalism in the 19th century.

The Enlightenment:

• Definition in the Textbook: European intellectual movement of the eighteenth century that applied the principles of the Scientific Revolution to human affairs and was noted for its commitment to open-mindedness and inquiry and the belief that knowledge could transform human society.

• Ideals: The term "enlightenment" became synonymous with the European 18th century, characterized by the belief that reason from the Scientific Revolution, when applied to humanity, could uncover laws for better self-governance.

  • Enlightenment thinkers, like Immanuel Kant, emphasized individual understanding and rationality without dependence on external guidance.

• Common Traits Among Thinkers: Despite varied beliefs, Enlightenment intellectuals typically shared a critical style, a commitment to inquiry, and a common critique of established political and religious authority.

Critique of Traditional Structures:

• Political and Religious Criticism: Many Enlightenment figures criticized arbitrary government, divine rights of kings, and aristocratic privileges.

  • John Locke advocated for constitutional government formed through a social contract, reflecting the new idea of natural rights.

• Voltaire and Religious Intolerance: Voltaire, a prominent French Enlightenment writer, used sarcasm to address religious intolerance, reflecting the scientific dislike for “unscientific” beliefs.

New Religious Perspectives:

• Deism and Pantheism: The scientific approach influenced new religious beliefs such as deism and pantheism.

  • Deists likened God to a clockmaker who set the universe in motion without further interference.

  • Pantheists believed that God and nature were identical, viewing God through the lens of natural law and reason.

• Natural Religion: This new form of ritual-free religion promoted a rational, scientifically justifiable concept of God.

  • It marked a significant departure from traditional religious practices, emphasizing logic and rationality.

Radical Enlightenment Ideas:

• Critique of Religious Founders: Some of the most radical Enlightenment thinkers, like the authors of the Treatise of Three Imposters, argued that religious founders such as Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad were deceivers who exploited human ignorance for personal gain.

Debates on Women’s Rights

Enlightenment Views on Women:

• Salons and Participation: Although some Parisian women hosted salons where Enlightenment ideas were discussed, most male Enlightenment figures did not support feminist views. The Encyclopédie, a key repository of Enlightenment thought, included very few contributions from women.

• Rousseau's Perspective: Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that women were fundamentally different from and inferior to men, suggesting that women's education should be aimed at pleasing and serving men.

Feminist Responses:

• Journal des Dames: Founded in 1759 in Paris, this publication defended women's intellectual capabilities and criticized men for denying women educational opportunities.

• Advocates for Gender Equality: Figures like Marquis de Condorcet and Mary Wollstonecraft challenged prevailing views on gender inequality. Condorcet advocated for equal rights between the sexes, while Wollstonecraft directly contested Rousseau's views in her writings.

Global Influences on Enlightenment Thought

Influence of Non-European Cultures:

• Admiration for China: Voltaire and other thinkers admired China's meritocratic system of governance led by secular scholars, believing it to be higher than Europe's basis of aristocratic birth and military elitism.

• Confucianism as a Model: Enlightenment thinkers saw Confucianism as a model of secular, moral, rational, and tolerant governance, which they used to critique the supernatural elements of Western Christianity.

Central Themes and Reactions of the Enlightenment

Theme of Progress:

• Idea of Progress: The Enlightenment introduced the concept that human society could be improved through reason and human action, a revolutionary idea contrasting with traditional beliefs that society was fixed by divine command or tradition.

• Condorcet's Optimism: French philosopher Condorcet exemplified this belief in progress, stating that the potential for human improvement was limitless.

Reactions to Rationalism:

• Critique by Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau critiqued the overemphasis on reason and advocated for natural education, promoting virtues like self-reliance and generosity over the negative traits he associated with advanced civilization.

• Romantic Movement: In reaction to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, the Romantic movement emphasized emotion, intuition, and imagination, advocating for a deeper connection to nature and human emotion.

Religious Responses:

• Religious Revivals: The era saw religious awakenings that emphasized personal spiritual experiences and a return to devout practices, as seen in the growth of the Methodist movement which focused on personal piety and communal religious activities.

• Enlightened Religion Forms: Movements like the Quakers and Unitarians reflected Enlightenment principles by emphasizing tolerance, simplicity, and a rational approach to faith, distancing themselves from traditional Christian doctrines.

Influence and Adaptation of Religion

• Adaptation of Religious Practices: Despite challenges from scientific and Enlightenment thinking, various religious movements adapted by integrating elements of Enlightenment thought, focusing on ethical behavior and social justice, as seen in the social gospel movement of the 19th century.

• Persistence and Revival of Religion: Religion continued to adapt and thrive, indicating its resilience and capacity to reformulate in response to new intellectual currents.

AP Questions:

Explain how Europe’s new views of science led to new ideas about human government and new philosophies.

• Rational Government: The application of scientific principles of reason and evidence to politics led to the development of new forms of government, such as constitutional democracy, as proposed by philosophers like John Locke.

• Economic Theories: Adam Smith applied scientific methods to economics, formulating laws that described economic behaviors and advocating for free-market policies that he argued would naturally lead to societal benefits.

• Social Contract: The idea that government is a contract between the governed and the governors, rather than divinely ordained, reshaped political thought and justified the reconsideration and restructuring of governments.

In what ways did the Enlightenment challenge older patterns of European thinking?

• Questioning Authority: The Enlightenment challenged the absolute authority of both the monarchy and the church, promoting ideas that authority should be questioned and justified through reason, proposed by John Locke through social contract.

• Scientific Rationalism: The shift to a worldview based on empirical evidence and scientific inquiry undermined the traditional Christian cosmology and the church's authority on truth.

• Individualism: Enlightenment thinking emphasized the importance of the individual and individual rights, leading to a reevaluation of societal norms, including the roles of different classes and genders.

Explain how the Enlightenment led to new ideas about women’s roles in Western society.

• Philosophical Debates: The Enlightenment spurred debates about the nature and roles of women, with philosophers like Mary Wollstonecraft advocating for equality in education and legal rights.

• Contrasting Views: While some philosophers like Rousseau proposed that women's education should be aimed at serving men, others challenged this notion and argued for women's intellectual and moral equality.

• Public Sphere: Women began to participate more in the public sphere through salons and publications, challenging their traditional roles set in by patriarchy and pushing for broader societal changes regarding gender.

European Science beyond the West

Europe's Scientific Revolution:

• Excitement in Europe: The invention of the telescope in early seventeenth-century Europe caused significant advancements in astronomy and provoked widespread enthusiasm among European scholars.

• Global Dissemination: Despite reaching China, Mughal India, and the Ottoman Empire, the telescope and other scientific innovations did not generate similar excitement or development in these regions.

China's Selective Engagement with European Science:

• Selective Interests: Chinese interest was primarily in practical applications of European science, such as eclipse prediction, calendar reform, and cartography.

• European Mathematics: Chinese scholars showed particular interest in European mathematics, partly to bolster the historical narrative of Chinese mathematical primacy.

• Medical Indifference: European medicine found little favor among Chinese physicians until the nineteenth century, reflecting a broader selective assimilation of Western knowledge based on perceived utility and cultural compatibility.

Japan's Controlled Interaction with Western Science:

• Dutch Influence: The Dutch, allowed to trade at Nagasaki, were the sole European influence in Japan until the 1720s when Japan began to permit the importation of Western books.

• Adoption of Western Anatomical Knowledge: Japanese scholars, impressed by Western anatomical knowledge demonstrated through dissections by Dutch physicians, began to value these insights, previously considered unfit for the social mainstream.

Ottoman Empire's Reluctance to Adopt European Scientific Advances:

• Awareness but Limited Adoption: While Ottoman scholars were aware of European scientific achievements by the mid-seventeenth century, they translated few major scientific works, focusing instead on the practical benefits of such knowledge for tasks like mapmaking and calendar reform.

• Conservatism in Education: The educational system, deeply rooted in Islamic tradition, viewed theoretical science with suspicion and favored practical knowledge that did not challenge religious or philosophical norms.

Broader Implications and Resistance:

• Resistance to Theoretical Science: In many non-European societies, theoretical science faced resistance from entrenched educational systems and religious orthodoxy, exemplified by the closure of an advanced astronomical observatory in Constantinople due to religious backlash.

• Late Embrace of Western Science: Systematic adoption of Western science across these regions awaited increased European pressure and the internal recognition of the need for modernization in the nineteenth century.

AP Questions:

In what ways did European science affect major civilizations of Asia in the early modern era?

• Selective Adoption: Major Asian civilizations such as China, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire showed selective interest in European science, focusing on practical applications like calendar reform, cartography, and astronomy rather than fully embracing the theoretical aspects of the Scientific Revolution.

• Limited Impact: The impact of European science was generally modest and limited to specific areas of interest. For instance, in China, there was some interest in European mathematics and techniques for predicting eclipses, but European medicine was largely ignored until the nineteenth century.

• Cultural Resistance: There was resistance to fully adopting European scientific methods due to prevailing cultural and educational norms. For example, the Ottoman Empire was aware of European scientific developments but chose not to translate major scientific works, prioritizing their own longstanding astronomical and mathematical traditions.

What effect did Dutch learning have on Japan?

• Introduction of Western Knowledge: The Dutch, permitted to trade at Nagasaki, were instrumental in introducing Western scientific books and knowledge to Japan, particularly after the lifting of the ban on Western books in the early eighteenth century.

• Focused Interests: Japanese scholars expressed significant interest in Western anatomy and medicine, which was new to them. The dissections performed by Dutch physicians were particularly influential, changing Japanese perceptions of medical and anatomical knowledge.

• Long-term Influence: While initially limited, the experience with Dutch learning paved the way for Japan's Meiji Restoration in the mid-nineteenth century, laying a foundation for more extensive adoption and adaptation of Western scientific techniques and knowledge.

Looking Ahead: 19th century Science

The momentum of the Scientific Revolution expanded into the 19th and 20th centuries, leading to significant advancements and breakthroughs in various fields of human inquiry. These scientific disciplines were more cumulative and self-critical, which in some ways differed with the Enlightenment’s ways of criticizing political structures.

Charles Darwin (1809–1882) developed the theory of evolution through natural selection, which he articulated in his groundbreaking works, "The Origin of Species" (1859) and "The Descent of Man" (1871).

• Key Concepts:

  • All life is subject to change due to environmental pressures and competition for survival.

  • Species evolve over millions of years, and this evolutionary process includes humans.

  • His theory challenged the fixed, hierarchically created view of life that was prevalent in Christian theology, making his ideas controversial and transformative.

Karl Marx and the Science of Society

• Karl Marx (1818–1883) Marx developed a theory known as historical materialism, which argued that all historical developments are the result of material conditions rather than ideals.

• Marxist Theory:

  • Class struggle is the driver of historical development.

  • Economic base influences the societal superstructure, including politics, religion, and culture.

  • Predicted the eventual collapse of capitalism and the rise of socialism.

• Influence: Marx's theories became foundational for various political ideologies and movements, particularly influencing the socialist and communist revolutions of the 20th century.

Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis

• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) introduced psychoanalysis, a method for understanding the human mind and treating mental illness by exploring the unconscious.

• Psychoanalytic Theory:

  • Human behavior is significantly influenced by unconscious motivations, particularly sexuality and aggression.

  • Neuroses develop from conflicts between societal norms and unconscious desires.

  • Introduced therapeutic techniques such as free association and dream analysis.

• This challenged the Enlightenment view of humans as primarily rational beings, highlighting the complex and often irrational underpinnings of human actions.

Developments in Physics: Relativity and Quantum Mechanics

• Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity: Introduced concepts that space and time are interwoven into a single continuum affected by mass and velocity, revolutionizing the understanding of the universe.

• Quantum Mechanics:

  • Developed by physicists like Max Planck, Niels Bohr, and Werner Heisenberg.

  • Revealed a universe at the micro level where effects are probabilistic rather than deterministic, where particles can exist in multiple states simultaneously until observed.

  • Challenged classical physics by demonstrating that at fundamental levels, the universe does not follow predictable laws as previously thought.

• These theories led to new technologies such as nuclear energy and various modern technological advancements, including semiconductors and quantum computing.

Impact on Philosophy and Culture

• These scientific ideas spread through various aspects of culture and philosophy, leading to existential and modernist movements in art and literature, which reflected the new uncertainties and complexities of the 20th century.

• The notion of an ordered, predictable universe was replaced with a view that was less certain and more open to chaos and complexity.

AP Question:

How did nineteenth-century developments in the sciences challenge Enlightenment ideas and principles?

• Darwin's Theory of Evolution: Charles Darwin's ideas, as presented in "The Origin of Species" and "The Descent of Man," suggested that species, including humans, evolved through natural selection. This challenged the Enlightenment view of humans as inherently rational and unique, showing instead that humans were subject to the same evolutionary processes as other animals.

• Marx's Historical Materialism: Karl Marx proposed that human history was driven by material economic forces rather than ideals and rational decision-making. This perspective suggested that societal changes and historical developments were the results of conflicts between different social classes, not the unfolding of rational and decisive human progress. Marx's view challenged the Enlightenment's emphasis on individual reason and moral progress.

• Freud's Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud introduced the concept that human behavior was deeply influenced by unconscious impulses and desires, contradicting the Enlightenment's view of humans as rational beings fully in control of their thoughts and actions. Freud's theories suggested that irrational forces could have a significant impact on human behavior, challenging the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and conscious thought.