Intro: Industrialization Beyond Europe and North America

Japan's Unique Industrial Journey

• Japan was the only non-Western country to undergo a significant industrial transformation during the nineteenth century.

• This industrialization was part of Japan's broader strategy to respond to the threat of European aggression and assert its independence and power in East Asia.

Limited Industrialization Elsewhere

• In regions such as colonial India, Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, China, and Latin America, only modest industrial initiatives were attempted.

• These efforts did not lead to the profound social transformations seen in more fully industrialized societies like Britain, Europe, North America, and Japan.

Global Impact of Western Industrialization

• Despite the lack of widespread industrialization, the influence of European and North American industrial developments was pervasive and impacted societies worldwide.

• Latin America, among other regions, experienced significant effects from the global economic changes and pressures induced by Western industrialization.

After Independence in Latin America

• Latin American independence was protracted and destructive compared to North America, marked by decimated populations, diminished livestock, damaged or abandoned silver mines, deserted farms, decreased international trade and investment, and depleted national treasuries.

Political Fragmentation Post-Independence

• Post-independence, the four major Spanish American viceroyalties fragmented into eighteen countries.

• Early independent life in Brazil was marred by regional revolts.

• International conflicts included:

  • Peru and Bolivia's brief union and subsequent divisive conflict (1836–1839).

  • Mexico's loss of substantial territories to the United States (1846–1848).

  • A devastating war involving Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay against Paraguay (1864–1870) that severely impacted Paraguay.

Political Turbulence and Leadership

• Political environments in new nations were unstable and turbulent:

  • Conservatives advocated for centralized power and preservation of colonial social structures, aligning with the Catholic Church which owned much productive land.

  • Liberals promoted Enlightenment ideals, modest social reforms, and federalism, often clashing violently with conservatives.

  • Conflicts enabled military strongmen (caudillos) to rise as defenders of order and property, though their power was frequently challenged and replaced.

  • Notable caudillo Antonio López de Santa Anna of Mexico served as president multiple times (1833–1855).

  • Frequent changes in constitutions, e.g., Bolivia experienced ten constitutional changes in the 19th century.

Social Conditions and Changes

• Social structures remained largely unchanged after independence:

  • Women were disenfranchised and excluded from formal political activities.

  • Slavery was abolished across most of Latin America by mid-century, persisting in Brazil and Cuba until the late 1880s.

  • Legal distinctions among racial groups were eliminated, with all free people officially considered equal.

  • Economic resources continued to be dominated by creole white men, maintaining a cultural orientation towards Europe.

  • Some mestizo men gained social mobility through the military, occasionally rising to become caudillos.

  • A nascent middle class of mixed-race individuals emerged, working as teachers, shopkeepers, or artisans.

  • The majority, including blacks, Indians, and mixed-race individuals, remained impoverished, working in subsistence farming or as laborers in mines and on haciendas.

  • Notable social resistance included the Caste War of Yucatán (1847–1901), where Maya people fought against European and mestizo settlers.

Political Consolidation and the Export Boom

Political Stability and Technological Advances

• During the latter half of the 19th century, countries such as Mexico, Peru, and Argentina achieved greater political stability.

  • This was a significant shift from the tumultuous early years of independence, characterized by frequent changes in government and conflicts both internal and international.

• Technological innovations, including the steamship and the underwater telegraph, enhanced connectivity with Europe, reducing travel and communication times.

  • The introduction of the steamship significantly reduced the time required for sea travel between Britain and Argentina, effectively cutting the duration by nearly half. This technological advance facilitated quicker and more efficient movement of goods and people.

  • The underwater telegraph was another pivotal technology, enabling instantaneous communication between Europe and Latin America. This allowed for the rapid transmission of news, updates on European market demands, and cultural exchanges, including the latest fashions.

Economic Outcomes and Export Boom

• The industrialization of Western Europe and North America created a surge in demand for various raw materials and agricultural products from Latin America. This demand was met enthusiastically by local landowners, businessmen, and governmental bodies, leading to a significant increase in exports.

• From 1850 onwards, there was a remarkable growth in the value of Latin American exports, increasing by tenfold over approximately 60 years. This export boom was pivotal in integrating Latin American economies into the global market.

Key Exports and International Trade

• Key exports included:

  • Silver: Mexico continued to be a major silver producer, supplying over half of the world's new silver until 1860.

  • Copper and Tin: Chile and Bolivia became crucial suppliers of copper and tin, respectively, driven by the needs of the burgeoning electrical and canning industries in Europe and America.

  • Nitrates and Guano: Both crucial for agriculture, these fertilizers from Chile and Peru became highly demanded for boosting agricultural productivity in industrialized countries.

  • Rubber and Sisal: The Amazon's wild rubber was essential for the automotive industry, particularly for bicycle and car tires, while sisal from Mexico was used in North American mechanical harvesters.

  • Agricultural Products: There was a strong demand for bananas from Central America, beef from Argentina, cacao from Ecuador, coffee from Brazil and Guatemala, and sugar from Cuba. These commodities were essential to meet the dietary and consumer preferences of a growing and increasingly affluent population in industrialized nations.

• In exchange for these raw materials and agricultural products, Latin America imported textiles, machinery, tools, weapons, and luxury goods primarily from Europe and the United States.

Foreign Investment and Infrastructure Development

• European capital investment in Latin America was substantial, with around $10 billion invested between 1870 and 1919, primarily by Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States. British investments in Argentina were particularly noteworthy, exceeding those in its own colony, India.

• A significant portion of this investment was channeled into building extensive railroad networks to facilitate the export of goods to coastal ports for overseas shipment.

• Railroad Expansion:

  • In Mexico, the railroad infrastructure grew from 390 miles in 1876 to 15,000 miles by 1910.

  • Argentina's railroad network expanded to 22,000 miles by 1915, providing more railroad track per capita than even the United States, indicating the high level of development and investment in transportation infrastructure.

Late 19th to Early 20th C: Economic Growth, Societal Changes

Economic Elites' Vision and Realization of Progress

• To the economic elites of Latin America, the developments during this period signified progress towards resembling Europe or the United States. The growing economies, increasing outputs, and burgeoning populations, which rose from about 30 million in 1850 to over 77 million by 1912, were indicators of success.

• Public health improvements, such as safe drinking water, inoculations, sewers, and anti-mosquito campaigns targeting yellow fever, significantly lowered death rates, contributing to population growth.

Urbanization and Cultural Transformation

• Rapid urbanization transformed Latin American cities into modern metropolises. Changes included the replacement of colonial cobblestones, white-plastered walls, and red-tiled roofs with modern infrastructure.

• Cities like Buenos Aires, which had a population of 750,000 in 1900 and was known as the "Paris of South America," epitomized this transformation. Here, the educated elite indulged in European cultural practices, such as afternoon tea and discussions on European arts and philosophy, often conducted in French.

Immigration Policies to Mimic European Demographics

• In pursuit of modernity, which was equated with European standards, Latin American countries encouraged immigration from Europe to increase their "white" populations.

• Promises of prosperity attracted many impoverished Europeans, with Argentina receiving approximately 2.5 million immigrants, mostly from Spain and Italy, between 1870 and 1915. Brazil and Uruguay also saw significant numbers of European immigrants.

Socio-Economic Disparities and Limited Benefits from Economic Growth

• The benefits of economic growth were disproportionately enjoyed by the upper-class landowners and a growing middle class of merchants, office workers, lawyers, and other professionals. These groups benefited from the export boom and urbanization.

• However, these economically advantaged groups represented a small fraction of the population, e.g., in mid-1890s Mexico, landowning upper class and middle classes constituted about 1% and 8% of the population, respectively.

• The vast majority of the population remained impoverished and classified as lower class.

Labor Movements and Government Response

• A new segment of the lower class comprised urban workers in railroads, ports, mines, and factories. They initially formed mutual aid societies and, by the late 19th century, began organizing into unions and striking.

• Authoritarian governments viewed these labor movements as threats to stability and progress, often responding with severe repression.

• Notable incidents include the 1906 strike in Cananea, Mexico, where the Mexican dictator Porfirio Díaz enlisted the Arizona Rangers to suppress strikers, resulting in numerous deaths. In 1907 in Iquique, Chile, a protest by nitrate miners led to the slaughter of over 1,000 men, women, and children by the police.

Rural Suffering and Migration

• Rural lower-class populations suffered significantly from government policies and exploitation by wealthy landowners, leading to loss of communal lands and increased indebtedness.

• Many rural inhabitants were displaced or forced to become dependent laborers on haciendas, where they earned meager wages.

• Unable to sustain families on inadequate wages, women and children increasingly joined the labor force in fields.

• Many European immigrants, especially Italians in Argentina and Brazil, unable to secure farms as anticipated, moved to urban areas or returned to Europe due to disillusionment and economic hardship.

Prelude to Revolution

• Local protests and instances of violence were common across Latin America due to vast inequalities, but only in Mexico did these conditions catalyze into a significant national revolution.

• The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) was initiated by middle-class reformers alongside workers and peasants, targeting the overthrow of Porfirio Díaz's long dictatorship (1876–1911). This conflict resulted in approximately 1 million deaths, about 10 percent of the population at that time.

Key Figures and Events of the Revolution

• Charismatic peasant leaders such as Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata were central to the revolution. Their forces successfully ousted Díaz and aimed to redistribute land by seizing and attacking large haciendas.

• Despite their initial successes, Villa and Zapata could not maintain long-term control of state power, largely due to internal factionalism and their focus on local and regional issues.

Constitutional and Social Changes

• The revolution led to profound transformations within Mexico, culminating in the adoption of a new constitution in 1917. This constitution introduced several progressive reforms:

  • Universal male suffrage was established.

  • It mandated the redistribution of land.

  • The Catholic Church was barred from public education and owning land.

  • Workers' rights, including a minimum wage and an eight-hour workday, were established.

  • Foreign property ownership was restricted.

Limited International Impact

• While transformative for Mexico, the Mexican Revolution's influence was primarily confined to Mexico itself and partly to Central America and the Andes. It did not achieve the broader international impact seen with the Russian and Chinese revolutions.

Lack of Industrial Revolution in Latin America

Economic Structures and Limited Industrialization

• Despite economic growth from the export boom, Latin America did not experience a thorough Industrial Revolution. Only a few factories emerged, primarily processing food or manufacturing textiles, clothing, and building materials.

• The social structure, which relegated about 90 percent of the population to the impoverished lower class, resulted in a very small domestic market for manufactured goods.

• Economically dominant groups like landowners and cattlemen, who benefited from exporting agricultural products, had little incentive to invest in manufacturing.

• Domestic manufacturing struggled to compete with cheaper and higher-quality foreign goods, lacking protective tariffs due to the prevailing doctrine of free trade among Latin American political leaders.

Economic Dependency and Foreign Influence

• Latin America's economic growth was heavily financed by foreign capital and was dependent on the prosperity and decisions of Europe and North America.

  • Dependent Development: Term used to describe Latin America’s economic growth in the nineteenth century, which was largely financed by foreign capital and dependent on European and North American prosperity and decisions; also viewed as a new form of colonialism.

• An example of this dependency was Brazil's rubber industry collapse in 1910–1911, after Britain started competing rubber plantations in Malaysia using seeds illegally exported from Brazil.

• The influence of foreign investors, notably the U.S.-owned United Fruit Company, represented a new form of colonialism. The company's significant sway in Central America involved collaboration with local landowners and politicians to maintain U.S.-favorable conditions.

• The U.S. also exerted its influence through military interventions in several Latin American countries and controlled strategic assets like the Panama Canal, following its acquisition of Puerto Rico after the Spanish-American War.

AP Questions

What processes led to Latin America’s increased connection to the global economy in this era?

• Technological Advances: Innovations such as the steamship and underwater telegraph reduced travel and communication times between Latin America and Europe, enhancing trade efficiency and cultural exchanges.

• The Export Boom: There was a significant increase in the export of raw materials and agricultural products from Latin America to industrializing countries, driven by the demands of Western Europe and North America's growing economies. This was supported by various shipping innovations like the steamship, and mostly benefited the upper to middle classes.

• Foreign Investment: Extensive foreign capital, particularly from Europe, was invested in infrastructure like railroads, which facilitated the extraction and export of local resources, thereby integrating Latin America more deeply into the global economy.

Compare the shift to industrial production in Latin America and Europe.

• Europe: Industrialization in Europe was very transformative, marked by a shift from agrarian economies to industrial powerhouses, significant technological innovation, and the development of extensive manufacturing industries.

• Latin America: The region experienced limited industrialization, primarily focused on processing local resources (food, textiles, etc.). The social structure and economic incentives favored continued export of raw materials over domestic manufacturing, hindered further by a lack of protective tariffs and the dominance of foreign goods.

How were the social changes in Latin America similar to or different from the social changes in Europe?

• Similarities:

  • Urbanization: Both regions saw rapid urbanization; cities in Latin America and Europe expanded significantly and modernized.

  • Public Health: Improvements in public health measures, such as sanitation and disease control, contributed to population growth.

• Differences:

  • Class Structure: While Europe saw the emergence of a robust middle class, Latin America remained dominated by a small elite of landowners and a large impoverished lower class of urban workers and rural farmers.

  • Industrial Impact: The industrial revolution profoundly changed European society, creating a broad working and middle class, whereas Latin America's limited industrialization had less impact on its social structures.

Compare features of the Mexican Revolution to the French and Russian

Similarities with French and Russian Revolutions:

• Popular Discontent: All three revolutions emerged from widespread dissatisfaction among the population with the existing social and political orders. In Mexico, France, and 1905 Russia, this included issues of social inequality with the elite and lower class and autocratic rule. Later in 1917 in Russia, war fatigue from WWI and a more extreme economic crisis were additionally drivers for revolution, along with the factors that played into the 1905 Revolution.

• Radical Social Change: Each revolution resulted in profound changes in social structure and governance. The Mexican Revolution led to land reforms and labor rights, the French Revolution dismantled the monarchy and feudal privileges, and the 1905 Russian Revolution led to some new reforms, like the duma assembly of representative governance, although these reforms were unsatisfactory for the laboring class, with 1,250,000 of them going on labor strike. The 1917 Russian Revolution, which sought to completely overthrow the tsar, led to the establishment of a communist state with radical redistribution of property.

• Response to Oppression and Inequality:

  • All three revolutions were reactions to oppressive regimes that ignored the needs of the majority, particularly the working and lower classes. Each sought to correct these imbalances through extensive social and political reforms.

• Initial Failure to Establish Long-term Stability:

  • French Revolution: Led to years of instability and power struggles, culminating in the rise of Napoleon.

  • Russian Revolution of 1905: Did not immediately overthrow the Tsarist regime but led to significant reforms such as the creation of the Duma.

  • Mexican Revolution: Although it successfully deposed Díaz, it also entered a decade of conflict before achieving more stable reforms.

Differences from the French Revolution:

• Leadership and Goals: The French Revolution began with broader political participation and aimed at establishing a republic, quickly evolving into radical phases like the Reign of Terror. The Mexican Revolution was initially more fragmented, led by regional leaders with specific agendas, such as land reform, rather than overarching national governance changes.

• Outcome and Stability: The French Revolution led to a series of government changes, culminating in the rise of Napoleon and the eventual restoration of the monarchy, followed by a more stable republic much later. The Mexican Revolution, despite initial instability, resulted in more immediate institutional reforms embedded in the 1917 Constitution.

Differences from the 1907 Russian Revolution:

• Ideological Drive: The Russian Revolution was heavily ideologically driven, guided by Marxist principles aiming to establish a proletarian state. The Mexican Revolution was less ideologically uniform, focusing more on practical issues like agrarian reform rather than a complete societal overhaul based on a specific ideological framework.

• International Impact: The Russian Revolution had a profound international impact, inspiring communist movements worldwide and leading to a significant geopolitical shift with the Cold War. The Mexican Revolution, while impactful domestically, had limited influence outside Latin America, primarily affecting neighboring regions in Central America.

• Control of State Power: In Russia, the Bolsheviks successfully seized and maintained control of the state, leading to a single-party communist regime. In contrast, the leaders of the Mexican Revolution, such as Villa and Zapata, failed to maintain long-term control over the Mexican state, largely due to internal divisions and the lack of a unifying national strategy.

General Differences:

• Outcome and Extent of Reforms:

  • French Revolution: Radically altered the political landscape by abolishing the monarchy and establishing a republic, though it faced many subsequent transformations.

  • Russian Revolution of 1905: Resulted in limited reforms; it is often seen as a precursor to the more radical 1917 Revolution, highlighting its partial success in achieving its goals.

  • Mexican Revolution: Produced substantial immediate reforms, including the 1917 Constitution which enacted sweeping land, labor, and educational reforms.

• Leadership and Ideological Focus:

  • French Revolution: Transitioned through multiple leadership phases, from moderate to radical, driven by broad ideological shifts toward republicanism and democracy.

  • Russian Revolution of 1905: Lacked a single unifying leader or party, characterized by various uprisings and strikes coordinated by different groups, including liberals, socialists, and nationalists.

  • Mexican Revolution: Although lacking a unified national leadership like the Bolsheviks in the 1917 Russian Revolution with Vladimir Lenin, it had notable regional organizations like Villa and Zapata, who, despite their focus on local issues, influenced national politics.

• International Impact and Legacy:

  • French Revolution: Had a profound and immediate international impact, inspiring revolutions and reforms across Europe and beyond.

  • Russian Revolution of 1905: Its impact was more subdued internationally but set the stage for the larger, more consequential Bolshevik Revolution.

  • Mexican Revolution: While transformative domestically, its influence was largely confined to Mexico and to a lesser extent, Central America and the Andes, without the international revolutionary impact of the French or Russian revolutions.

Compare the role of women in the Mexican Revolution, pictured above, with the role of women in the French Revolution of the previous era.

• Mexican Revolution:

  • Women, known as "Soldaderas," actively participated both as combatants and in support roles, crucial to the logistical and operational aspects of the revolutionary armies.

  • They were involved in domestic tasks but also engaged directly in combat, significantly shaping the revolution’s progress.

• French Revolution:

  • Women participated primarily through political clubs and movements like the Women's March on Versailles; however, they were often marginalized in political decision-making and later explicitly banned from political clubs.

  • Their involvement was crucial but less formally recognized, and they did not achieve lasting political or social rights immediately following the revolution.