Economic Foundations of 19th Century European Expansion

Industry and Material Demands

• The Industrial Revolution was pivotal in transforming Europe into an economic powerhouse with increased needs for raw materials to fuel its burgeoning industries.

• This period saw a significant shift towards mechanization and mass production, leading to a surge in productivity and creating a demand for a wide range of raw materials and agricultural products:

  • Wheat was needed from the American Midwest and southern Russia to feed Europe's growing urban populations.

  • Meat was imported from Argentina to supplement European diets.

  • Bananas from Central America, rubber from Brazil, and cocoa and palm oil from West Africa were imported to meet the diverse needs of European consumers and manufacturers.

European Exports and Market Expansion

• The surplus production capacity of European industries resulted in an excess of manufactured goods, necessitating expansion into overseas markets to dispose of these goods profitably:

  • By 1840, Britain, as a case in point, was exporting substantial portions of its cotton-cloth production internationally, with significant quantities going to Europe, Latin America, and India.

  • The fascination with China and its vast market potential stemmed from its large population, envisioned as a vast consumer base for European goods.

Foreign Investment as an Economic Strategy

• The profitability of overseas investments became a crucial component of European economic strategy during this period:

  • British investors, for example, found it more lucrative to invest their capital abroad than at home, with approximately half of British savings from 1910 to 1913 being directed towards foreign investments.

  • Such investments not only promised higher returns but also helped in the economic subjugation and control of various regions, aligning them economically with European interests.

Social and Political Impacts of Imperialism

Economic Imperatives and Social Stability

• European elites viewed overseas expansion as a means to ensure social stability at home by mitigating unemployment and social unrest:

  • Cecil Rhodes highlighted the critical role of imperialism in preventing domestic upheaval in Britain by providing markets for surplus production and opportunities for the excess population, thereby averting potential civil conflict.

Rise of Mass Nationalism and Imperial Popularity

• The unification of Italy and Germany by 1871 intensified nationalistic sentiments and competitive international relations in Europe.

• The struggle for colonies and economic influence became intertwined with national prestige and power, making the acquisition of territories urgent regardless of their immediate economic value.

• Imperialism gained broad popularity as it offered economic and social benefits to the elite, seemed necessary for maintaining international power, and provided emotional satisfaction to the public.

Technological and Ideological Foundations of 19th Century European Imperialism

Technological Advances Supporting Imperialism

• Transportation and Communication:

  • The completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 revolutionized travel to Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, enabling faster and more reliable ship passage.

  • Steam-driven ships enhanced the ability to penetrate interior rivers and access remote areas.

  • The underwater telegraph allowed for almost instant communication with distant parts of the empire, facilitating more effective administrative and military control.

• Health and Military Technology:

  • The discovery of quinine significantly reduced the mortality rates of Europeans in tropical climates by preventing malaria.

  • Advancements in military technology, such as breech-loading rifles and machine guns, greatly increased European military superiority over colonized peoples.

Shift in European Perception and Racial Attitudes

• From Religious to Secular Superiority:

  • Previously, Europeans often viewed non-European peoples through a religious lens, categorizing them as heathens versus the Christian self-identity of Europeans.

  • The Industrial Revolution fostered a secular arrogance, with Europeans priding themselves on technological achievements, material wealth, and military prowess, which they used as new standards to judge themselves and others.

• Degradation of Non-European Cultures:

  • The respect previously accorded to certain non-European societies, like the Chinese or African kingdoms, diminished. Europeans increasingly viewed these societies as inferior or primitive.

  • For instance, the Chinese were stereotyped as "John Chinaman" — perceived as weak and conservative — and fears of the "yellow peril" reflected growing racial anxieties in Europe.

  • Africans' status was reduced from being seen as nations ruled by kings to tribes led by chiefs, emphasizing their "primitive" status.

Emergence of Scientific Racism

• Scientific Methods and Racial Theories:

  • Europeans applied scientific methods to assert racial hierarchies, using disciplines like phrenology and craniology to claim biological superiority over other races.

  • The classification of human races according to skull sizes and shapes purportedly showed European superiority, intertwining racist ideology with scientific credibility.

• Biological and Social Darwinism:

  • The application of Darwinian theories to social and racial contexts justified imperial aggression and dominance as natural selection in human societies, promoting the idea that European conquest and subjugation of "weaker" races were both natural and beneficial for human progress.

Ideological Justifications for Imperialism

• The Civilizing Mission:

  • European imperialists, like Jules Ferry, argued that Europeans had both the right and the duty to "civilize" less advanced peoples, encompassing everything from religion to governance, economic development, and social customs.

    • This paternalistic view framed imperialism as a benevolent endeavor aimed at bringing progress and civilization to supposedly backward societies.

• Social Darwinism and Imperial Necessity:

  • The harsher aspects of imperial ideology were supported by Social Darwinism, which saw European expansion as an inevitable outcome of the survival of the fittest, leading to the displacement or eradication of "unfit" races.

  • Such views rationalized imperialism, war, and aggression as not only natural but also progressive, facilitating the spread of "superior" European civilizations.

AP Questions:

In what ways did the Industrial Revolution shape the character of nineteenth-century European imperialism?

• Economic Demands: The Industrial Revolution created a massive demand for raw materials (e.g., cotton, rubber) and new markets, which motivated European nations to expand their territories overseas to secure these essential resources and sell their manufactured goods.

• Market Expansion: As European industries produced more goods than their domestic markets could absorb, imperialism was driven by the need to find new markets for these goods, preventing economic stagnation and supporting continual industrial growth.

• Advancements in Communication and Transportation: Innovations such as steamships and the telegraph made distant territories more accessible and easier to control, facilitating better logistical capability and and more effective governance of widespread empires.

• Military Superiority: Developments in military technology, including breech-loading rifles and machine guns, provided European forces with overwhelming superiority in conflicts against less technologically advanced societies, making conquests quicker and less costly in terms of lives lost.

What contributed to changing European views of Asians and Africans in the nineteenth century?

• Scientific Racism: The adoption of scientific methods from the Scientific Revolution to classify human races created a pseudo-scientific foundation for racial hierarchy, positioning Europeans as superior. This was supported by studies in phrenology and anthropology which inaccurately measured skull sizes to prove intellectual superiority.

• Cultural Arrogance: Industrial and technological advances led Europeans to develop a secular arrogance, viewing their own culture as the pinnacle of human development. Non-European societies were increasingly seen as backward or stagnant.

• Social Darwinism: This ideology applied Darwin’s theory of evolution to human societies, suggesting that European dominance was a natural selection process and portraying non-European societies as "lesser" or "unfit" races destined to be dominated.

• Civilizing Mission: This ideology was a justification for imperialism, predicated on the belief that Europeans had a moral obligation to bring civilization to "backward" societies. This mission was seen as bringing not only technology and governance but also European cultural norms and values, which further separated Europeans from their colonial subjects by emphasizing the supposed benevolence of European rule and the need for societal reform in colonized regions.

Evaluate how Europeans would use these new views toward non-European societies in order to separate themselves from their colonial subjects in Asia and Africa.

• Establishment of a Racial Hierarchy: Europeans used scientific racism to establish a clear divide between the "civilized" Europeans and the "primitive" non-Europeans, justifying harsh governance and exploitation as a form of bringing progress to these societies.

• Implementation of Social Policies: In colonies, Europeans instituted policies that reflected these new views, including segregating spaces based on race and implementing educational and legal systems that reinforced the idea of European superiority.

• Economic Exploitation: By viewing non-European societies as less capable and more backward, Europeans felt justified in extracting resources and exploiting local labor, arguing that they were bringing civilization and economic development to these regions.

How did European justifications for colonialism change from the "first wave" of conquest in the sixteenth century to the "second wave" in the nineteenth?

• Sixteenth Century Justifications:

  • Religious Motivations: The first wave of European conquest, particularly by the Spanish Empire, was heavily influenced by a desire to spread Christianity and convert indigenous populations, often justified by the need to save souls and bring religious enlightenment.

  • Territorial and Economic Gain: While economic motives were always present, such as the search for gold and spices, they were only for the sake of accumulation rather than for finding new markets to sell mass produced manufactured items.

• Nineteenth Century Justifications:

  • Civilizing Mission: In the second wave, the religious justification was largely replaced by the secular "civilizing mission," which argued that Europeans were bringing progress, science, and rational administration to backward societies.

  • Social and Racial Theories: The influence of social Darwinism and scientific racism provided a new framework, suggesting that European domination was a natural and beneficial outcome of the evolutionary progress of societies, framing imperialism as a moral duty to improve lesser-developed races.

  • Economics: The economic justification changed as Europe transitioned from mercantilism to capitalism, with the industrial need for raw materials and markets becoming a primary driver of imperial expansion.