UNIT 8/9 TRUE
Unit 8.1: Post War Conferences
The Big Three (US, Great Britain, Soviet Union) held conferences to discuss the post-war world.
Tehran Conference (1943): Discussed dividing land acquired post-WWII.
Yalta Conference (1945): Allies discussed Germany's surrender. Roosevelt wanted free elections in Eastern Europe, Soviets wanted control there.
Potsdam Conference (1945): Truman advocated for free elections in Eastern Europe, but Stalin refused.
These conferences failed to resolve major US-USSR problems, leading to distrust.
US-Soviet Rivalry
Post-WWII, the US and USSR became rivals due to nationalism and competing ideologies, leading to the Cold War. The Soviets developed their own atomic bombs.
Military Advancements
Full-scale war was too costly, hence a "Cold War." The Hydrogen Bomb was developed in the 1950s, beginning the Arms Race. President Eisenhower warned against the military-industrial complex. The START I treaty limited nuclear stockpiles.
Topic 8.2: The Cold War
Tensions rose between the US and USSR due to differing economic and political systems. The "Iron Curtain" divided Western (democratic) and Eastern (autocratic) nations.
Satellite States
The Soviet Union created satellite states to spread communism in Eastern Europe.
Containment
U.S. diplomat Kennan advocated containing communism from spreading to Western Europe.
USA and Allies
US allies included Great Britain, NATO, Canada, and Western European nations.
The Truman Doctrine
In 1947, Truman declared America would stop Soviet Communist influence from reaching Western nations.
The Marshall Plan
Provided funding to European nations to modernize industries and resist communism.
The Space Race
US and USSR competed to reach the moon first. Soviets launched the first satellite in 1957, US in 1958.
The Non-Aligned Movement
African and Asian nations resisted communism, forming the Non-Aligned Party to avoid superpower interference.
NATO and the Warsaw Pact
Western European nations formed NATO in 1949. The Soviet Union responded with the Warsaw Pact in 1955.
Germany and the Berlin Wall
Germany was divided. The Soviets blockaded West Berlin, leading to the Berlin Airlift (1948-1949). Germany remained divided, and the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing to the West.
Effects of the Cold War
Proxy Wars (Korea, Vietnam, Angola) caused millions of casualties. Korea was divided, leading to the Korean War (1950-1953). The US intervened in Vietnam to prevent a communist takeover but withdrew in 1971. Angola saw conflict due to Cold War tensions.
Cuban Missile Crisis
After the failed Bay of Pigs invasion (1961), the Soviet Union placed missiles in Cuba. The US blockaded Cuba, leading to an agreement to remove missiles from Cuba and Turkey. This led to treaties like the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty and Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
Topic 8.4: Spread of Communism
China’s Great Leap Forward
Started in 1958, land was reformed. Peasants lost their land, and resistance was crushed.
Iran’s White Revolution
In 1979, a theocracy was formed enforcing Shariah Law and opposing Western influence.
India’s Revolution
Split into Pakistan and India in 1947. Land reforms were enacted to stabilize the economy.
Vietnam’s Revolution
After WWII, France was given control. Communists declared independence and instilled policies forcefully.
Topic 8.5: Decolonization After 1900
Colonies gained independence due to nationalist movements.
Nationalist Movements for Independence
India/Pakistan: Gandhi led nonviolent protests. After independence, Muslims formed Pakistan in 1947.
Ghana: Gained independence from Britain in 1957. Kwame Nkrumah became president and promoted Pan-Africanism.
Algeria: Independence achieved in 1962 after conflict between the FLN and France.
Vietnam: Fought France post-WWII. The country was split until the US war, after which North Vietnam claimed the South
Egypt/Suez Crisis: Egypt gained freedom from the Ottoman Empire in 1922. Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, leading to a crisis resolved by the UN.
Quebec: The "Quiet Revolution" led to efforts to separate from Canada, narrowly failing in 1995.
Topic 8.6: Newly Independent States
Israel
Conflicts arose over Jerusalem. Zionist Movements led to Israel's creation in 1948.
Conflicts:
Six-Day War (1967): Israel gained the Gaza Strip.
Yom Kippur War (1973): Egypt and Syria attacked, but Israel won.
Camp David Accords (1978): Peace agreement between Israel and Egypt.
Cambodia’s Khmer Rouge
After WWII, Pol Pot led a communist coup. Harsh policies caused approx. 2 million deaths. Vietnam invaded and removed Pol Pot. Peace agreement in 1991.
India’s New Government System
Jawaharlal Nehru was followed by Indira Gandhi, who strengthened India’s economy.
Sri Lanka’s New Government
Sirimavo Bandaranaike became prime minister in 1960, continuing socialist policies.
8.7 Resistance to Power Structures
Nationalist conflicts continued.
Examples:
Gandhi’s nonviolent marches
Francisco Franco’s military suppression
The Shining Path in Peru
Nonviolent Resistance
Examples:
MLK and the March on Washington
Gandhi and the Salt March
Nelson Mandela
Protests to Soviet Power in Eastern Europe
Satellite states sought separation from Soviet rule.
Poland: Workers demanded better conditions in 1956.
Hungary: Protests in 1956 demanded freedom from Soviet control, leading to Soviet invasion.
Czechoslovakia: The Prague Spring of 1968 sought freedoms, but Soviet forces intervened.
Year of the Revolt
Protests in 1968 occurred in:
Yugoslavia
Poland/Northern Ireland
Brazil
United States
Terrorism in the US occurred across ethnic and political groups. The Oklahoma City bombing killed 168.
Age of Terrorism
Nationalistic groups committed terrorist acts.
Northern Ireland
Conflict between Catholics (IRA) and Protestants (UDA) resulted in 3500 deaths.
Francisco Franco
Dictator of Spain (1939-1975), anti-communist, used execution and imprisonment.
Abimael Guzman
Led the Shining Path in Peru, causing 37,000 fatalities.
Islamic Groups
Fundamentalist groups like Boko Haram, al-Shabaab, and the Taliban emerged.
8.8: End of the Cold War
Nationalist movements continued, and the USA/USSR improved relations.
Detentes
Relaxed tensions after events like the Cuban Missile Crisis. Examples included Nixon's visit to the Soviet Union and arms limitation treaties.
Soviet-Afghan War
The Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979. The Soviets withdrew in 1989, but a civil war followed, stressing the economic systems of Afghanistan and Russia.
Topic 9.1: Technological Advances since 1900
Telegraphs and Landlines would be the fastest forms of communication at this time. News now had the ability to spread news by wire in minutes. Cables would be required though.
An Italian in 1910 with the name of Gugleilmo Marconi would create the Radio; would birth instantaneous communication.
The soviets would invent the television in 1938, which would add pictures to radios.
The United States would establish the internet for the public for the first time, which allowed for websites, email, and social media
Cellular communications miniaturized the radio into a hand-held communications device that combined the telephone, radio, and the internet. Mobile phone sales would occur during the 80s, added text messaging during the 1980s, an dadded internment during the 2000s with the “smartphone”
The Green Revolution
During the 1940s through the 1970s, researchers would work on making agriculture more efficient through technological innovation.
Developments of the Green Revolution:
Irrigation projects in arid (dry/barren) regions
Usage of pesticides
Synthetic Fertilizers
New variations of crops, including GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms)
By 2000, Asian nations such as China, Vietnam, India, and Thailand, would become self-sufficient in food production. African nations would triple in food production between 1990 and 2010
The Green Revolution would additionally lead to a lack of variety in diet among these nations , as cereal grains would dominate agricultural production. Developed nations would use new technologies for truck farming (Farming of fruits and vegetables) to supplement their grain diets.
Another issue formed due to the Green Revolution would be Water pollution from pesticides.
Small farms would struggle to compete with larger and more efficient farms, especially in the developed world. (USA, Latin America, Europe)
Problems with energy production:
Fossil Fuels would produce “greenhouse gases”, most notably sulfur dioxide. These gases would cause global temperatures to rise, with acceleration since 2000.
Nuclear power would be a problem as well. Although Nuclear power is safe and clean, there is ALWAYS a risk of accidents and the incorrect disposal of of nuclear waste is problematic
Wind and solar power are space-consuming and unattractive, although being extremely clean
Hydroelectric power would involve the disfiguring of environments and the rerouting of environments
Family Planning
During the 1950s, progress was made in the area of family planning, in which parents exercise the use of new, safer methods of birth control. In addition, permanent methods of birth control also developed for men and women.
After 1970, fertility rates would begin to decline in the developed countries, and are starting to decrease in the rest of the world. The fertility rate in 2024 would be 1.89 children per mother (below the 2.1 equalization rate)
1950: Highest Birth Rate: Kenya (11.2 CPM)
1980: Highest Birth Rate: Malawi (8.8 CPM)
2020: Highest Birth Rate: Afghanistan (4.2 CPM)
Other medical advances made during this time would be:
Vaccines (Polio, Smallpox, Measles, Mumps, Diphtheria, Tetanus)
Antibiotics (TB, Syphilis, bacterial infection)
Chemotherapy (Cancer)
Organ Transplants (Heart, Lungs, Kidneys, Liver)
Medical Imaging (X-Rays, MRIs, CT Scans)
Topic 9.2 Technological Advancements and Limitations: Disease
This topic discusses diseases that would pose challenges to the nations through the 20th and the centuries.
Examples of diseases that would pose major challenges would be:
Malaria
Tuberculosis
Cholera
Smallpox
Diseases of Poverty
Many diseases still persist because nations and people do not have the resources to adequately fight them.
Examples:
Malaria: 1,700,000 people, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, contract malaria, born of mosquitoes.
TB: Bacterial infection of the lungs that has become very resistant to antibiotics. This disease is common in cities where people live in close proximity. Examples would be apartment buildings.
Cholera: water-borne virus that can spread through poor hygiene and contaminated water. Can be solved by the hydration of clean water
Emerging Epidemics
HIV/AIDS: First discovered in the DRC in the 70s, HIV would prevent the immune system from functioning. Spread through unprotected sex, birth, and the sharing of needles. Around 40 million people have the disease, mostly in Africa, SE Asia, and the US. Treatment has improved over the past 20 years
Influenza: The flu has annual outbreaks; however, one particular strain caused the 1918-1919 flu outbreak that killed 20 million people mostly in the USA and infected 20 percent of the world’s population. And it was spread through WWI and trade. The Flu vaccine is usually about 65 - 80 percent effective and must be administered annually.
Ebola: A relatively new virus found in the DRC in the 1970s. Extremely virulent, the USA has been working very hard to develop treatments for ebola before it spreads outside of Africa. Has a 98 PERCENT FATALITY RATE
Diseases of Longevity:
Heart Disease: The Number one killer of people in developed nations, heart disease can be caused by genetics, poor diet, sedentary disease, or old age. Treatments have improved immensely since the 70s, and heart transplants have existed since 1967. Can be slowed down through surgery, medications, and lifestyle changes
Alzheimer’s Disease: Form of dementia that usually affects people over the age of 65. There is no cure. Found commonly in nations with higher life expectancy. The USA has the most cases in the world, with over 8 million cases as of 2022. Lifestyle might play a role
Topic 9.3: Technology and The Environment
Population Growth: in the 1900s, the population of the world was around 1.6. Today it is 8 billion and the population is supposed to peak at 9 billion in 2050. This would lead to an increased need for more land devoted to agriculture and more crops. This would lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and loss of habitats and biodiversity.
Overfishing means less fish and species of fish. Cod populations are under 4 percent of their 1900 levels
This population is overwhelmingly URBAN (62 percent urban), meaning there are less farmers to do the work
Resource Depletion: Reserves of petroleum, coal, copper, and aluminum are being used up quickly. Over half of the world’s fossil fuels are estimated to be already used up since 1800
Lack of clean water: Over 1.3 billion people lack access to clean drinking water, particularly in SE Asia And Sub-Saharan Africa, and this number is growing rapidly. In nations lacking clean water, women and children often bear the responsibility for traveling to retrieve it, hurting their ability to gain an education
Increased Greenhouse gases: CO2 levels are increasing, and nature’s ability to remove it (trees) are decreasing. Global temperatures have increased on average 1.7 degrees celsius since 1980
Need for Renewable Energy: Only seven percent of the world’s energy production is renewable (Wind, solar, tidal, geothermal). This number needs to increase to 50 percent to prevent permanent global warming, according to the UN. (The 50/50 goal of the Tokyo Accords
THE GLOBAL WARMING DEBATE
While there are “global warming” skeptics (mostly n the FF industry)
Scientists generally agree that global action is required to prevent global warming.
In 1997, the first major international agreement to reduce carbon emissions, the KYOTO PROTOCOLS, were signed. The US agreed to it, but the Senate refused to ratify the agreement. India and China were exempted from it
In 2015, 195 nations signed the Paris Agreement, including the big three (USA, China, India). In 2017, President Trump withdrew from the agreement, claiming that global warming was a hoax, at the urging of the fossil fuel industry. The Paris Agreement proposed reducing carbon emissions by 50 percent by 2050 globally
Topic 9.4: Economics in the Global Age
Free-Market Economics: With the end of the Cold War, there was a major push for the globalization of trade.
The Pros? Cheaper goods globally, as supply and demand determine the price of goods. Developing nations would have greater access to goods
The Cons? Developed nations, such as the USA, would lose industrial jobs as developing nations had cheaper labor. These developing nations would also have fewer pollution controls.
During the 1980s and 1990s, the US pushed hard for the opening of free-trade markets, especially US president Ronald Reagan. The problem was that US corporations shifted production to 3rd-world nations, stunting economic growth.
Chile, a nation with a massive amount of mineral resources, overthrew socialist Salvador Allende (Ah-yen-dat) in 1973 with US (CIA) help. The new leader, Augusta Pinochet (pea-no-shay) paid back the US by opening up the nation to foreign investment and free trade. Unfortunately, Pinochet ignored the peas of the poor in Chile for help; they overthrew him after years of torture, bribery, and murder. Chile followed a balanced approach since the 90.
During the 80s and 90s, Chinese president Deng Xiaopeng Decided to liberalize the CHinese economy.
Peasants could sell food at markets (led to surpluses of food)
Factories moved towards consumer production
Shanghai (and other cities) were permitted to have foreign companies with low taxes and almost no environmental laws
Stock Market in Shanghai returned
Unfortunately, the Chinese government remained repressive and legalist
World Trade Organization (WTO)
The WTO regulates the vast majority of the world’s trade, and trade agreements. It is often controversial, as it is controlled by large corporations and its lobbyists. In addition, they meet in secret because they often have to deal with “”Proprietary” corporate secrets and issues.
Protests usually swirl around their annual meetings (Seattle 1999). Protests usually attract liberal/socialist extremist groups who disapprove of the WTO’s tendency to favor corporations and free trade over moral issues (working conditions, child labor, etc)
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
Multinational Corporations are companies that have HQs in several nations. This structure allows them to be flexible and to serve foreign markets more efficiently
This also allows them to dodge nations with high corporate taxes and to skirt labor laws
EX: Microsoft (USA), Google (USA), Mahindra and Mahindra (India), Nestle (Switzerland), Mcdonald's (USA), Burger King/ Tim Hortons (Canada), Hyundai (South Korea), Rio Tinto (Brazil), Boeing (USA), Airbus (France), Samsung (South Korea) Nike (USA) Adidas (Germany), Apple (USA), Sony (USA), Toyota (Japan), IKEA (Sweden), Aldi (Germany), Disney (USA), Royal Dutch Shell (Netherlands)
TOPIC 9.5: Calls For Reform and Responses
During the post WWII-era, the world began to question how the world could improve upon the human condition. This section will discuss various reform movements of the modern era.
In 1948, the UN adopted the UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, which stated that all humans were entitled to basic rights such and dignity, healthcare, education, speech, religion, and property with being discriminated against the basis of race, color, sex, language, religion, political opinion, etc.
The United Nations
The United Nations (UN) created several organizations to defend human rights:
UNICEF (UNITED NATIONS INTERNAL CHILDRENS EMERGENCY FUND) investigates genocide, war crimes, oppression, and abuse of women and children.
The International Court of Justice settles disputes over international law, such as treaty disputes. It also tries war criminals
The UN also works to protect REFUGEES, or people who have fled their nations, with food, medicine, and shelter. It also works to secure residency status for refugees
Major Reform Movements
Global Feminism - This movement began in 1911 with the First International Women’s Day Celebration in AUstria, Denmark, Germany and Switzerland, when over one million women demonstrated for women's rights. The most recent demonstration was in 2017, when five million women marched in 84 nations (day after Trump became POTUS)
General Goals For Feminism
Right to vote
Right to hold office
Right to freely choose their spouse
Right to access family planning resources
Right to have access to the same education as men.
The Negritude, or “Black Pride movement”: Began in French West Africa drink from 1910, it was the forerunner of the modern black pride movement of the 1960s.
LIberation Theology: Prominent in Latin America, it combined socialism with Catholicism. Liberation theologists believe that Christianity requires people to redistribute their wealth to the poor. THis became most notable in Nicaragua and Venezuela. Pope Francis has embraced liberation theology in recent years.
Suffrage movement: American women did not gain full right to vote until 1965 with the Civil Rights Act. By 2018, only the Vatican City did not provide women with voting rights. However, many nations restrict women’s voting rights. Pakistan and Afghanistan are notorious for preventing women from exercising their voting rights.
Racial Equality
United States: Civil Rights Act reversed segregation (1965)
South Africa: End of apartheid (1994) under deKlerk and Mandela
India: 1949 constitution ended legal discrimination against untouchables, created caste reservation system which created quotas for employment India; Pakistan followed in 1965
China: Even as China began to liberalize its economy, it continued to repress its people. During the spring of 1989, pro-democracy groups organized sit-in strikes and hunger strikes. In June 1989, thousands of protestors rallied in Tiananmen Square in Beijing to protest. After seven weeks, the Chinese Army rolled in, murdering thousands of protesters. Even today, the event never happened in China. The parents of the dead are not allowed to mourn the death of their offspring.
Three ethnic minorities in China continue to be repressed by the CCP: the Uighurs in western China, the Mongols in northern China, and the Tibetans in southwestern China.
9.6: Globalized Culture
Political changes after 1990: More cooperation, less competition.
Examples: NAFTA, EU, WTO
Social Changes: Rights movements unified cultures, and academic knowledge, such as psychology, sociology, and science, began to spread around the world. Examples: technology such as cars, antibiotics, and vaccines.
Spread of Pop Culture
Radio was the first major vehicle through which pop culture spread,especially wit jazz and big band music from the US
AMERICANIZATION
Because the US dominated most major media after 1945, the world learned more about the US than the US learned about the world. This was Americaniation,and it caused great resentment around the world; other cultures felt that the US did not value their culture.
Another aspect of American culture the other nations resented was the Throwaway or disposable nature of the US.
Spreading of English
Due to the influence of American media, corporations, and research, and the influence of the British Empire, the British language became the Lingua Franca of the world after 1900. By 2020, 650 million people spoke English as their L1, and 1.9 billion spoke it as their L2
Due to its WIDE USE, several examples of slang have been introduced to the language. More than any other.
English became the language of diplomacy,commerce, aviation, and pop culture
US and British music became global in nature (Beatles, Michael Jackson, Prince, BackStreet Boys, Hip-Hop)
Reggae (and Bob Marley) is globally recognized (Jamaica)
K-Pop is also globally recognized
Why? Radio, internet, YouTube
Hollywood, Bollywood, anime, and video games also became popular (Japan is the world’s second most-influential culture due to video games and anime)
The World’s most popular sports as of 2020?
Soccer (6 billion fans)
Cricket (1.1 billion fans)
Basketball (850 million fans)
Baseball (620 million fans)
Rugby (440 million fans)
The world’s most popular sporting event? The FIFA World Cup, followed by the Olympic Games.
Sorry, American Football fans… (Only 350 million fans)
Globalization, despite its propensity to raise global awareness and appreciation of cultural diversity , has its drawbacks, and its opponents
The main argument of the anti-globalists is that globalization benefits only about two percent of the world’s population (wealthiest class of nations)
The anti-globalists wish for more equal distribution of the wealth and resources among ALL people
The Argument Against Globalization
Global institutions, such as the WTO and the IMF would serve large corporate interests and want to maximize corporate profits and the expense of workers.
Globalization threatens the unique cultures of individual nations and peoples. The internet and social media need to be restricted to protect cultures. (China, Saudi Arabia, North Korea)
Why Resist Globalization?
Much of the world’s food resources, especially chocolate and coffee, is produced with child labor. Large chocolate companies have been slow to change their labor methods
Many companies, including American companies, are under intense pressure to meet corporate deadlines. Some, including Amazon, do not allow employees bathroom breaks to maximize efficiency.
Many workers work in dangerous conditions, such as building that are poorly built, unsafe, or too crowded
Environmental Damage has been increased to due the amount of global shipping that has been taking place (Fossil Fuels)
Rainforests are being cut down in Brazil to make room for cattle fuels
Brexit: Conservative Britons argued that globalization requires the British to take in too many immigrants from other European Union nations. The UK left the EU in 2016
What Do Anti-Globalists Want?
Fair Trade - the person who produces a good receives a reasonable price for their labor.
Human Rights
Sustainability - Current profits should not sacrifice future profits
Debt relief for the poor and for poorer nations
9.8 INSTITUTIONS DEVELOPED IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD
The UN: More Powerful than the failed League of Nations, it was formed in 1945 with 51 founding members. Today, there are 203 nations.
The General Assembly
The Security Council
The Secretariat- The Secretary- General (small, neutral nations)
The International Court of Justice
The Economic and Social Council (Largest arm of the UN
The Trusteeship Council
UN PEACEKEEPING MISSIONS
The United Nations occasionally sends “peacekeeping” troops to areas of war to help maintain peace or to assist in humanitarian missions.
Nations from throughout the UN donate troops for these missions; they are lightly armed and are only allowed to return fire if fired upon.
Army missions succeed (El Salavador, Cambodia, Namibia, Mozambique) and fail (Rwanda, Bosnia)
The problem of the UN is that these missions are cautious and sometimes very slow to act.
OTHER UN ACTIVITIES
Protecting Refugees
Feeding the Hungry
Supporting Education and Cultures
Protecting Human RIghts
Improving Living Conditions
The European Union, the world;s largest and most successful multinational tariff-free zone, began in 1956 as the European Coal and Steel Community with W. Germany, Netherlands, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Austria
In 1965 it expanded into the European Common Market with 12 nations
In 1994, the group became the European Union with the Treaty of Maastricht. The EU agreed to remove ALL tariffs and all borders between member nations. They also agreed on one common passport and free movement through countries.