Memory Lecture 7

Memory Lecture Notes

Overview of Memory

• Memory involves the processes of studying memory, including:

  • Encoding: Getting information in

  • Storage: Retaining information

  • Retrieval: Getting information out

  • Forgetting

  • Memory Construction

Measuring Retention

• There are three measurements to assess memory retention:

  1. Recognition

  • Requires identifying an item among other choices (e.g., multiple-choice test).

    • Example: "Name the capital of France."

      • Options:

      • A. Brussels

      • B. Rome

      • C. London

      • D. Paris (Correct Answer)

  1. Recall

  • Involves retrieving information with effort (e.g., fill-in-the-blank tests).

    • Example: "The capital of France is ."

  1. Relearning

  • Demonstrates how much time or effort is saved when learning material a second time.

    • Example List: Jet, Dagger, Tree, Kite, Silk, Frog, Ring

    • Original Trials: 10;

    • Relearning Trials: 5;

    • Calculation:

      • ext{Saving} = rac{10 - 5}{10} imes 100 = 50 ext{%}

Ebbinghaus’s Retention Curve

• Hermann Ebbinghaus's research showed:

  • More practice on Day 1 led to less time required to relearn on Day 2.

  • The speed of relearning is a key measure of memory retention.

Memory Models

• Memory Models are utilized by psychologists for studying and communicating about memory.

  • Information-Processing Model: Compares human memory to computer operations involving three processes: encoding, storage, retrieval.

  • Connectionism Model: Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing, viewing memories as products of interconnected neural networks; highlights neuroplasticity.

Three-Stage Information-Processing Model (Atkinson-Schiffrin, 1968)

1. Sensory Memory

2. Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)

3. Long-Term Memory

• Update:

  • Introduces the concept of working memory, which refers to information being consciously attended to, substituting short-term memory.

  • Acknowledges unconscious/automatic processing in memory.

Dual-Track Memory

• Explicit Memory: Facts & experiences consciously accessible.

• Implicit Memory: Skills or actions learned without conscious awareness.

  • Example: Learning to ride a bike involves implicit memory.

Coding Memory Processes

• Automatic Processing: Processing information without conscious effort (space, time, frequency).

• Effortful Processing: Requires focused effort to encode information.

Sensory Memory Types

1. Iconic Memory: Visual information retention, extremely brief.

2. Echoic Memory: Auditory information retention, also extremely brief.

Short-Term (Working) Memory

• Limited capacity: 7 ext{ ± } 2 items.

• Duration: Approximately 20 seconds (George Miller, 1956).

Effortful Processing Strategies

1. Encoding by Meaning (Semantic): Meaningful association enhances memory.

2. Encoding by Images (Visual Encoding): Utilizing mental imagery as a memory aid.

3. Encoding by Organization:

   • Mnemonic Techniques: Using vivid imagery and organizational devices.

   • Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful segments for easier recall.

     • Example of chunking: 1776, 1492, 1812, 1941 as significant historical years.

   • Acronyms:

     • HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

     • ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

Hierarchical Organization of Information

• Hierarchies provide structured relations among concepts.

  • Example Hierarchy:

  • Metals

  • Minerals

  • Stones

    • Rare

    • Common

    • Alloys

    • Precious

    • Masonry

Distributed Practice

• Spacing Effect: Information retention improves when rehearsed over a period of time.

• Testing Effect: Enhanced memory occurs after retrieval compared to mere reading.

Levels of Processing

• Verbal information processed at different levels influences long-term retention:

  • Shallow Processing: Basic level (e.g., word's letters) or intermediate level (e.g., word's sound).

  • Deep Processing: Semantically based on the meaning of the word.

  • Self-Reference Effect: Personal relevance enhances recall.

Long-Term Memory Storage

• Capacity: Essentially unlimited.

• Types of Explicit Memory:

  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts.

  • Episodic Memory: Memories of personal experiences.

  • Example: Clark’s nutcracker can find 6,000 caches of buried seeds during winter.

Systems Involved in Memory

• Explicit Memory System: Involves the frontal lobes and hippocampus.

  • Hippocampus: Activity during the formation of explicit memories.

  • Memory Consolidation: Neural storage of long-term memory, supported by sleep.

• Implicit Memory System: Involves the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

  • Cerebellum: Key in forming and storing memories from classical conditioning.

  • Basal Ganglia: Assists in skill memory formation.

Retrieval Mechanisms

• Retrieval Cues: Anchors within a web of associations that aid memory retrieval.

  • Example Associations: Fire Truck → Truck, Red, Fire, Heat, Smoke, etc.

• Priming: Activation of strands in memory leading to specific recall.

• Context Effects: Context where learning took place can prime retrieval.

• Serial Position Effect: Better recall for first and last items on a list compared to those in the middle.

Forgetting

• Forgetting may occur at any stage of memory handling: processing, storage, or retrieval.

• Encoding Failure: Information not encoded cannot be remembered.

  • External events and attention play crucial roles in this process.

• Storage Decay: Memories can decay over time, demonstrated by Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve showing retention drops and then levels off.

  • Percentage retention over time demonstrates decreasing memory strength.

Interference in Memory

• Interference can disrupt retrieval of information.

  • Proactive Interference: Older memories hinder new information recall.

  • Retroactive Interference: New learning makes it difficult to recall older memories.

Memory Construction and Distortion

• Memory construction involves filtering or filling in missing information.

  • Misinformation Effect: Misleading questions can alter memory recall.

  • Example Experiment:

    • Group A: "How fast were cars going when they hit each other?"

    • Group B: "How fast were cars going when they smashed into each other?"

    • Result: Group B reported seeing broken glass more than Group A when no glass was present.

• Constructed Memories: Research indicates that individuals may fabricate memories based on suggested misinformation.

Improving Memory Strategies

• Rehearse repetitively.

• Make material meaningful (rewrite notes in own words).

• Activate retrieval cues (use mnemonic devices).

  • Utilize vivid imagery and chunking.

• Minimize proactive and retroactive interference through mindful learning strategies.

• Prioritize sleep to enhance memory consolidation.

• Test oneself to rehearse and identify knowledge gaps.