WHP-AP 4-0-5 Read - Origins of Oceanic Connections

Origins of Oceanic Connections

• By Bennett Sherry

• Time Period: 1450 to 1750

• European mariners leveraged technologies from centuries of trade to explore the oceans and enhance the wealth of various European states.

Origins of Oceanic Distortions

• Comparison of Map Projections:

  • Mercator Projection:

    • A widely recognized map projection named after Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator.

    • Distorts sizes, particularly at the poles, leading to a misleading representation of land sizes, making Europe appear larger than it is.

    • Misconceptions include:

      • Greenland appears larger than Mexico, yet they are roughly the same size.

      • Canada is seemingly equivalent to Africa, but Africa is actually three times larger.

  • Robinson Projection:

    • An alternative projection that provides a more accurate, albeit imperfect, representation of continents.

The Issue of Representation

• The problem of accurately depicting a three-dimensional sphere on a two-dimensional medium results in distortion.

• The Mercator projection was designed in 1569 to assist European navigators, fostering misconceptions about the relative size and significance of different regions, subsequently reinforcing the idea that Europe holds a primary place in global history.

An Age of Exploration

• In the fifteenth century, European explorers embarked on voyages, notably not discovering lands inhabited for millennia.

• Motivated primarily by economic factors, the search for a sea route to the Indian Ocean gained momentum as the Silk Road had been monopolized by the Ottoman Empire, which taxed luxuries from Asia, placing financial burdens on European monarchs.

• Iberian monarchs (Spain and Portugal) were eager to bypass Ottoman control due to historical conflicts on the Iberian Peninsula.

• Key Contributions to Exploration:

  • Italian merchants (especially from Venice) continued trade with the Ottomans.

  • Seafarers from Venice and Genoa developed routes from the Mediterranean to the North Atlantic in the thirteenth century.

  • Collaborative efforts between Portuguese navigators and Jewish mathematicians yielded improved techniques for determining latitude.

  • Arab mariners contributed vital knowledge regarding navigation along the West African coast.

Colonization and Capitalism

• Spanish and Portuguese colonization of islands off the West African coast (e.g., Canary Islands, Madeira) became critical waypoints for resupply during transatlantic voyages.

• The islands served as venues for experimentation with large-scale sugar production, leading to the enslavement of indigenous and North African populations.

• Christopher Columbus introduced sugar cane from Madeira to the Caribbean, fundamentally impacting agricultural practices in the New World.

Navigational Advances

• Successful voyages required advancements built upon previous technologies.

• Chinese and Arab cartographers created detailed maps while Arab scholars translated ancient geographical texts.

• Notable figures included Ahmad Ibn Majid, whose guide, Kitab al-Fawa’id, detailed routes and ports around the Indian Ocean.

• European navigational technologies such as the astrolabe and magnetic compass were essential for open ocean navigation.

• New ship designs, including the caravel and carrack, were developed for Atlantic travel, facilitating more prolonged journeys with larger cargo capacities.

The Dangers of Exploration

• The voyages of discovery presented tremendous risks. For instance, Magellan’s circumnavigation (1520s) saw only one of five ships return, illustrating the perilous nature of ocean travel.

• With substantial investment risks, many voyages aimed to eliminate intermediaries in trade, thereby reducing costs and increasing profits.

The Rise of Dutch Dominance

• The Netherlands transitioned from a small republic to a formidable trading power (1600-1800).

• Joint stock companies emerged as vital financial structures to support maritime dominance.

• The establishment of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange allowed for shared investment and risk distribution, leading to significant Dutch control over the Eurasian trade routes.

• The Dutch East India Company and British East India Company held monopolistic control over trade in the Indian Ocean.

• The financial backing from European states facilitated exploration, colonization, and control over global trade routes.

Sources

• Brook, Timothy. "Vermeer’s Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World." New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2009.

• Frankopan, Peter. "The Silk Roads: A New History of the World." New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2016.

• Manning, Patrick. "A History of Humanity: The Evolution of the Human System." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.

• Paine, Lincoln P. "The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World." New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2013.

• Patel, Raj and Jason W. Moore. "A History of the World in Seven Cheap Things." Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2017.

• Zwart, Pim and Jan Luiten van Zanden. "The Origins of Globalization: World Trade in the Making of the Global Economy, 1500–1800." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.