Chapter 8 Review - Sociology
Chapter 8 Review
Variability of Deviance
Definition of Deviance: Sociologists emphasize that the classification of what is considered deviant behavior varies significantly over time and across different cultures and contexts.
Temporal Variability: Actions or behaviors that were seen as deviant in the past may no longer hold the same stigma today, and vice versa.
Example: Homosexuality was once criminalized and pathologized (considered a mental illness); it is now largely decriminalized and increasingly accepted in many societies.
Contextual Variability: What is deemed deviant in one society may be accepted in another (e.g., cultural practices, norms, laws).
Durkheim's Four Functions of Deviance
Functions of Deviance:
Clarification of Norms: Deviance helps to clarify societal norms and reinforce boundaries.
Example: The moral panic surrounding rock-n-roll in the 1950s led to a reaffirmation of conservative values in music and culture.
Social Cohesion: How society may bond over a collective rejection of deviant behavior.
Example: Anti-drug campaigns can strengthen societal unity against drug use, creating a collective identity.
Social Change: Deviance can pave the way for social change by challenging established norms.
Example: Marijuana smoking, once deemed deviant, is increasingly legalized and normalized, shifting societal attitudes.
Social Safety Valve: Providing an outlet for social discontent or deviant behavior that might otherwise destabilize society.
Example: Acceptance of various music genres allows expression of individuality without significant societal upheaval.
Merton's Strain Theory and Adaptive Strategies
Merton's Strain Theory: Proposes that societal pressure leads individuals to engage in deviance as they attempt to achieve culturally defined goals through illegitimate means when accessing legitimate opportunities is blocked.
Adaptive Strategies (Five Modes of Individual Adaptation):
Conformity: Accepting both cultural goals and means.
Innovation: Accepting cultural goals but using different means (e.g., drug dealing).
Ritualism: Abandoning cultural goals but rigidly adhering to the means (e.g., working diligently at a job without ambition).
Retreatism: Rejecting both cultural goals and means (e.g., substance abuse).
Rebellion: Rejecting and attempting to change both societal goals and means (e.g., political activism).
Labeling Theory and Deviance
Labeling Theory: Suggests that deviance is not inherent to an act but is instead the result of the labels society attaches to it. Key theorists include:
Lemert: Differentiated between primary deviance (initial act of rule-breaking) and secondary deviance (when a person internalizes the label and continues deviant behavior). Secondary deviance often results from societal reactions, where the individual's identity becomes defined by the label, leading to further deviance as a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Durkheim: Advocated the idea that deviance is functional for society, aiding in boundary strengthening.
Goffman: Discussed stigma and how it affects individuals labeled as deviant, leading to social exclusion. He elaborated on the types of stigma (e.g., physical, moral character, tribal) and their profound impact on an individual's social identity and interactions.
Becker: Stated that rules are created by those in power, and those labeled deviant perpetuate their behavior based on societal reaction.
Key Concepts:
Stigma: A mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person.
Retrospective Labeling: Reinterpretation of an individual's past in light of their current deviant status, affecting their identity.
Medicalization of Deviance
Definition: The process through which non-normative behaviors are defined and treated as medical problems or disorders, shifting focus from social to medical frameworks.
Implication: This can lead to the reliance on medical experts to address behaviors traditionally managed by social institutions (e.g., treating addiction as a health issue rather than a criminal one). Historically, behaviors like excessive drinking or hyperactivity in children, once seen as moral failings or disciplinary issues, are now often diagnosed and treated with medication.
Types of Crime
White-Collar Crime: Non-violent crimes committed by individuals and organizations in business or professional contexts.
Example: Fraud, embezzlement, or insider trading (e.g., Enron scandal).
Corporate Crime: Crimes committed by corporations or their representatives that harm individuals, communities, or the environment.
Example: Pollution violations or unethical business practices (e.g., Volkswagen emissions scandal).
Organized Crime: Structured groups engaged in illegal activities often with ongoing operations.
Example: Drug trafficking or human trafficking (e.g., the Sicilian Mafia).
Justifications for Punishment
Retribution: Punishment aimed at repayment for the crime committed; a form of social revenge.
Deterrence: The goal is to discourage offender and others from committing crimes by imposing penalties.
Specific Deterrence: Targets the individual offender.
General Deterrence: Targets society at large to prevent future offenses.
Rehabilitation: Aimed at reforming the offender so that they can return to society as a law-abiding citizen.
Societal Protection: Ensuring public safety by incapacitating offenders; may involve imprisonment or execution.
Explanations of Criminality
Biological Explanations: Suggests that genetics, physiology, and biology affect criminal behavior.
Reckless and Dinitz's Study of Boys: Explored the influence of background and environment on boys’ delinquency by studying "good boys" and "bad boys" in high-crime areas. Their findings suggested that self-concept and inner "containment" (such as a strong moral compass and ego strength) acted as buffers against environmental pressures to commit crime, indicating an interaction between individual predispositions and social circumstances.
Psychological Explanations: Focus on individual mental processes and personal traits that may predispose one to criminal behavior.
Historical Acceptance: Historically, Americans have favored biological and psychological explanations over sociological explanations due to a focus on individual responsibility rather than social structures.
Theories of Control and Deviance
Hirschi's Control Theory: Proposes that the stronger an individual's bonds to society (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief), the less likely they are to engage in deviance. These bonds are mechanisms through which society keeps individuals in check.
Sutherland's Differential Association Theory: Suggests that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others, where individuals become exposed to values that promote deviance. This learning includes techniques for committing crimes and specific rationales for violating rules.
Foucault and the Net-Widening Effect: This concept describes how the application of social control mechanisms (like surveillance, monitoring, or therapeutic interventions) designed to address deviance often expands beyond its initial target, bringing more individuals and behaviors under correctional or normalizing scrutiny. For example, alternative sentencing often leads to more people being under state supervision than traditional incarceration.
Weber on Legitimacy and Violence: Max Weber's theories on power and authority examine how political systems establish legitimacy through rational-legal, traditional, or charismatic means. While he discusses the state's monopoly on legitimate violence, his analysis is more broadly about the mechanisms of state power and social order, which underpins how societies define and respond to deviance. His work suggests that the state's authority to enforce norms and punish deviance is foundational to its