APHG REVIEW Fall Final 2024

2024 Fall APHG Final Exam Learning Target (Units 1-5)

Topic 1.1 Geographic Categories

Economic - that which pertains to financial value

Social - that which relates to the organization of human society, ideas, customs, and social behaviors of people

Political - that which relates to the government, public affairs, laws, boarders or territories of a country

Environmental - that which describes that natural world and the impact of human activity on its condition

Topic 1.3: Spatial Analysis “The Why of Where”

Spatial Analysis (Spatial Thinking) - why things are where they are

Distance Decay - as distance increase the intensity of a connection between locations decreases: AKA the less they should in common

Friction of Distance - distance is caused by the friction of a distance. The further away the more friction that caused connections to be lost

Time-Space Compression -

Topic 1.4: Human-Environment Interaction

What is Human Environment Interaction/HEI? How people interact and relate to the physical world through adaptations and modifications

How are environmental determinism and possibilism different? Environmental determinism is where landforms and climate shape human behavior and societal development, as to where possibles is how cultures respond to their environment

Topic 1.5: Scale of Analysis

Geographic Scale (of Analysis) - the amount of land a map shows. Global scale means map of the world; other scales: regional, local, etc

Common Scales of Analysis:

• Global: all the world's landmass

• Regional: the landmass for a country

• National: the landmass for a small region of countries like a continent or a collection of sub-states within a country like the “Midwest”

• Local: the landmass of a state, country city, school district, census tract

How does Scale Impacts Perspective? To show how show the way data is chunked and visualized on a map

Local Global Continuum - interdependencies among scales events at one scale can affect events at another scale

Topic 1.6: Regional Analysis

Formal/Uniform Region - areas with a high level of consistency (internal uniformity) with common attributes such as economic, social, political, or environmental characteristics that unify a space

Functional/Nodal Region - areas that are connected by a node, hub, or centerpoint based upon movement of economic foods, communication or transportation

Perceptual/Vernacular Region - areas grouped with no crisp of perfect boundaries, based upon people’s belief, feelings and attitudes about a region that may or may not be true about the region: the idea of where they begin and end changes easily

Topic 1.8: Geographic Data

Positive Correlation (When two variables work in the same direction; when one increases and the other increases or when one decreases the other decreases) vs Negative Correlation (when two variables work in the opposite direction; when one increases the other decreases)

Quantitative (defines: numbers, hard data, statistics) vs. Qualitative (Describes: characteristics, approximates, descriptions, collected through interviews and interpretations, could be subjective)

Topic 1.11: Types of Maps

Types of Thematic Maps (Visually Recognize and Distinguish Between)

• Choropleth: uses shading to show different levels of data, tend to be the most common type of thematic map

• Pindot - maps that use dot symbols to show the presence or quantity of a phenomenon; the closer the dots are together, the higher the occurrence

• Isoline - maps that use lines to connect equal points of value on a map

• Cartogram - this map shows electoral votes; larger states on the map have more electoral votes as they have a larger population n

Topic 1.12: Map Projections

Map Projection - is a way to make a 2D flat representation of the 3D Earth

Big Concept: Distortion - every map must have distortions that result from making a 2D representation of a 3D sphere

Cylindrical /Mercator Projection

• Purpose: spatial distributions in relation to areas

• Strengths: size of land masses are correct

• Distortions: shapes are inaccurate; especially near the poles

Conic Projections

• Purpose: general use in mid latitudes

• Strengths: lines of longitude coverage curves shape and area are close to reality

• Distortions: directions are not constant

Plane/Polar/ Azimuthal Projection

• Purpose: general use in mid latitudes

• Strengths: lines of longitude coverage, lines of latitude curve, shape and area are close to reality

Unit 2: Population and Migration

Topic: 2.1 Population Distribution and Density

Demography/Demographics - the study of population; demographics

Ecumene - portion of the earth’s surface occupied by permanent human settlements

Population Density - refers to the number of people in relation to the space they occupy

Arithmetic Density - the number of people per unit of land

Physiological Density - the number of people per unit of area arable land (agriculturally productive land)

Agricultural Density - the number of farmers per unit of arable land

Population distribution/Regional Clusters: Eastern USA /Eastern South America/East Australia/Sub-Saharan Africa/Europe/South Asia/East Asia

Topic 2.2: Analyzing and drawing inferences from Population Pyramids

Rapid Growth Pyramid Medium Growth Pyramid

Level of development: periphery/less developed Notes: High BR & High DR High RNI Base significantly wider than the middle Examples: Malawi Level of development: newly industrialized, (NIC), semi-periphery Notes Spade/beehive High BR/Declining DR Examples: brics/mint countries

Slow Growth Pyramid Negative Growth Pyramid

Level of development: Developed/core Notes: Low BR & Low DR Level of development: developed/core Notes - dr higher than br Examples: Japan, Italy, South Korea

Topic 2.3: Consequences of Population Distribution

Demographic Momentum - once a country has a rapidly growing population, it is difficult to effectively slow population growth

Consequences of overpopulation

• Education: more schools & teachers, higher operating expenses

• Health Care: more sick people to care for; babies require extra medical care

• Employment: job shortages

• Housing: housing shortages

Consequences of Underpopulation

• Labor shortage, not enough workers

• Loss of heritage, tradition dies off

Topic 2.4: The Demographic Transition Model

Characteristics of the Stages of the Model

Topic 2.5 : Population Dynamics (Influences on population growth and decline)

Fertility Indicators:

• Total fertility rate - the average number of children a woman will have in her reproductive years

• Replacement fertility rate - the number of children/female it takes to keep the population stable

• Crude birth rate: the total number of live births per 1000 in a population in a year

• Rate of Natural Increase: the crude birth rate minus the death rate, otherwise known as the growth rate

Mortality Indicators:

• Infant mortality rate - number of deaths per 1000 live births of children under one year of age

• Child mortality rate - number of deaths per thousand children within the first five years of life

• Crude death rate - is the number of deaths occurring among the population of an area during a given year, per 1000

• Life expectancy - the average number of years a person may expect to live

Factors of Fertility. How do the following increase or decrease fertility rates?

Social - if women are valued by the number of kids the have, the birth rate will be high

Political

Economic - the higher the level of economic development, the lower the BR

Topic 2.6: Malthusian Theory

Malthusian Theory (Thomas Malthus) - believed and theorized that the population would grow exponentially (1,2,4,6,8,16) while food supply would grow arithmetically (1,2,3,4,5). Resulting in a lack of food and water.

Neo-Malthusians - they fear that we will face a lack of resources.

• The growth of less developed countries are outstriping resources

• World population is not just stripping food but other resources aswell

• Demand anti-natal policies such as birth control and family planning

Cornucopians - the opposite of Neo-Malthusians

• They will believe that society will find a way to solve resource problems

Topic 2.8: Population Policies

Pro Natal Policies - encourages people to have babies; used to increase population growth

Anti Natal Policies - discourages people from having babies; used to control/slow growth

One Child Policy - reduce population growth by limiting family size

Kerala, India Policy - education for women, women in workforce, access to birth control

Topic 2.9 : Consequences of Old/Young Populations

Dependency Ratio

Consequences of Aging Population(too many old people)

Consequences of Young Population (too many kids)

Topic 2.10 : Catalysts of Migration

Emigrant - to move from a country

Immigrant - to move to a country

Catalysts of Migration

Push Factors: are events or conditions that impel an individual from a location

• Cultural - changes or lack there of societal norms regarding gender roles, religious practices, or attitudes on societal roles of groups of people

• Demographic

• Economic - lack of economic opportunity (#1 factor)

• Environmental - natural disasters

• Political

Pull Factors: Cultural/Demographic/Economic/Environmental/Political

Topic 2.11: Forced and Voluntary Migration

Internal Migration - is the moves people make within a particular country or region

The Gravity Model - larger (by population) and closer cities have more gravitational pull or influence on migrants than smaller or more distant cities

Step Migration - is an an eventual long-distance migration that is undertaken is stages: farm, village, small town, city

Intervening Opportunities - helps continue your migration process or something that could help you make a transition to a new country easier: job opportunities/facilitation options, assistance programs, positive present ions of immigrants

Intervening Obstacles - hinders your migration process or something that could make a transition to a new country difficult: challenges physical geography, restrictive immigration policies, negative perceptions of immigrants, cultural/language barrier, securing employment

Cyclical Movement - this movement has a closed route an generally happens on a regular basis

Types of Cyclical movement include:

• Activity Space - focuses on a interrelationship between activities in this space and the constraints imposed by these interrelationships

• Commuting - is the travel between one’s home and place of work on a regular basis

• Pastoral nomadism - they move their animals to water sources and pastures on a regular basis

Voluntary Migration - has an element of choosiest based on some perceived opportunity such as family/kinship

Periodic Movement - does not necessarily involve returning to the same place, it takes place over a longer period of time away from the home base

Types of Periodic movement include:

• Transhumance - moving animals up to mountains for summer pasturing and down into valleys during the winter

• Seasonal Movement - typically movement to areas seasonally to perform certain jobs

• College students - to and from college towns when school is in and out of session

Chain Migration/Kinship Links - migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationally previously migrated there

Rural to Urban

Forced Migration - is when the element of choice is removed

Impelled Migration - is when the individuals are not “forced” out of their country, but leave due to unfavorable situations such as warfare, political problems, natural disasters, or religious persecution

Internally Displaced Persons - are people displaced within their own countries

Asylum Seekers - someone who is usually a refugee and is seeking permanent protection/residency/assistance by another country to escape persecution

Refugee - people who flee war, violence, conflicts, or persecution

Unit 3: Culture and Identity

Topic 3.1 Introduction to Culture

Cultural Traits - individual culture practice

Culture Complex - a interrelated web of cultural traits that are characteristic of a group

Cultural Relativism - all cultures are different; what is accepted in one culture might be taboo in another

Ethnocentrism - evaluating another culture based on the culture norms or one’s own culture

Topic 3.2 Cultural Landscapes

Cultural Landscape (Built Environment) - modifications to the environment caused by human imprints and activities that reflects aspects of their culture

Ethnic Neighborhoods/Enclaves - areas of a city associated with a single ethnic group

Ethnic Islands - rural areas settle by a single distinctive ethnic group that places its imprint on the landscape

Symbolic Landscapes - implies that there is more to the cultural landscape than meets the eye

Sacred Space - natural or human-made sites that posses religious meanings for some religious groups or origin myth of a cultural group

Sequent Occupance - over time, different groups of inhabitants leave their distinctive imprint on the cultural landscape

Topic 3.3 Types of Diffusion

Cultural Diffusion - culture spreading or the process of how an idea or innovation is transmitted

Culture Hearths To Know: (Mesoamerica, Andes Mountains, West Africa, Nile River Valley, Mesopotamia, Indus River Valley, Ganges River Valley, The Huang He River Valley)

Independent invention - similar cultural traits with different culture hearths that developed independent of each other

Relocation diffusion - individuals migrate/move and carry their ideas to a new location

Expansion diffusion - the idea remains in the hearth (where they began) and diffuses to other locations

Types of Expansion Diffusion:

• Contagious - outward from hearth to adjacent groups

• Hierarchical - spreads from hearth in hierarchical “ranked” manner

• Stimulus - the same concept but tweaked

Topic 3.4 Contemporary Causes of Diffusion

Globalization - the expansion and intensification of linkages and flows of capital, people, goods, ideas, and cultures across national boarders

Topic 3.5 Effects of Diffusion

Acculturation - is the process by which a culture is substantially changed through interaction with another more powerful culture

Assimilation - immigrants become fully integrated into a new culture

Ethnic/Folk Culture - is the combination of various beliefs, customs, practices, etc

Pop/Popular Culture - a culture found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics

Placelessness - the feeling resulting in the standardization of the built environment; occurs where local distinctiveness is erased and many places end up with similar cultural landscapes

Postmodern Landscape - are devoted to consumers (targeting buyers to purchase things) and are looking more alike globally

Commodification - cultural trait is used for commercialization or profit

Unit 4: Language and Religion

Topic 4.1 Introduction to Languages

Standard Language - a way a language is spoken and written according to the formal rules of the language

Official languages - the language used by the government when making laws, reports, govt. documents, money and stamps

Dialect - regional variations of the same language using different vocabulary and grammar

Isogloss - geographic boundary line spreading where different linguistic patterns can be heard

Pidgin - is a simplified combination of two languages that is used informally in the marketplace of for work administration

Creole languages w/examples - when pidgin becomes the first language of a group of speakers, it is now considered a creole language

Lingua Franca w/examples - is a third language used by people who could not otherwise understand each other

Topic 4.4 Introduction to Religion

Ethnic Religion - are religions people are born into

Universalizing Religion - seek converts

Traditional/Indigenous Religion - tiny ethnic religions closely associated with localized culture groups

Animistic - religions that believe that non-human entities contains spiritual powers

Syncretic Religions - blending of two or more religious belief systems into a new unique system

Topic 4.6 Culture and Centripetal Forces

Centripetal Force - an action that unites or pulls people together

Centrifugal Force - an action that divides of forces people away from each other

Monolingual states - states where only dominant language is spoken which generally correlates to one dominant ethnicity

Multilingual states - states where multiple languages are spoken

Interfaith Conflict - conflicts between two different religions

Intrafaith Conflict - conflicts involving the same religion

Unit 5: Political Organization of Space

Topic 5.1 Political Power and Territoriality

Territoriality- a groups control of, desire to control, or attachment to a piece of land

Sovereignty - the ability of a state (country) to control its economy and govern itself without interference from other states

Autonomy - is a wide ranging term meaning the ability for a county, group or individual to make its own decisions w/o coercation from the outside

Peace/Treaty of Westphalia

Topic 5.3 Nations, States, and Political Entities

Nation - a group of people that has a common ancestry, regardless of it controlling a territory

State - an organized political unit with an established government

Enclave - political areas of one country separated from the main body by another country

Exclave - a cluster of a minority ethnic group different from the major ethnic group in an areas

Nation-State - political entity where the group of people within/controlling a country are ethnically homogenous

Stateless Nation - a culture group that has no state they control

Multinational State - a culture group that has no state they control

Multi-State Nation - contains 2 or more ethnic groups that has no state they control

Topic 5.5 The Political Function of Boundaries

Defined Boundary - a boundary that is defined within a legal document

Delimited Boundary - cartographers create or “draw” or “delimit” the actual boundary agreed upon by all sides on a map

Demarcated Boundary - a boundary is demarcated or visually on the ground by some visible means such as walls, posts, signs, fences

Natural/Physical - boundaries that follow a natural feature in the landscape

Geometric Artificial Boundaries - delimited boundaries that are usually drawn according to latitude and longitude

Antecedent Boundary - a boundary that is established after an area has been settled

Subsequent Boundaries - are settles after an area has settles

Types of Subsequent Boundaries:

• Consequent - boundaries drawn along cultural lines such as language, religion, ethnicities

• Superimposed - boundaries forcible drawn by a conquering or colonizing power without reference to pre-existing cultural patterns

Types of Boundary Disputes:

• Definitional - the legal language of the boundary is disputed

• Operational - disagreement on how a border should function or be administered

• Allocational - conflicts related to the location of boundaries with regard of the natural resources

Topic 5.6 UNCLOS

What is the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)? - a zone that extends 200 miles off a country’s coast in which they alone have mineral and fishing rights

What is the 12 Mile Territorial Sea? - the first miles off a country’s coast in which a country has economic control

What is the Median Line Principle? - if countries have an overlapping 12 mile or 200 mile zones, a boundary will be set that splits it 50/50

How does UNCLOS relate to current conflicts in the South China Sea? - All the countries have ownership of their respective parts but China is taking over

Topic 5.7 Supranational Organizations

Types of Supranational Organizations:

• Economic - make more money via increased trade

• Military - military protection

• Environmental - protect environment

Military Supranational Organizations:

• NATO -

Economic Supranational Organizations:

• EU

• ASEAN

• USMCA

• WTO

Topic 5.9 Factors of Devolution

Devolution Definition

Factors that can lead to the devolution: Physical Geography/Ethnonationalism/Ethnic Separatism/Regional Economic Differences/Irredentism

Topic 5.10 Challenges to Sovereignty: Devolution in Action

What is an Autonomous Region?

3 Main Types of Autonomous Regions: Economic/Distance/Sub-Political National Territory

Examples of Sub-Political National Territory

Balkanization

Breakup of Czechoslovakia: The Velvet Divorce

Topic 5.12 The Collapse of the USSR (Soviet Union)

Cold War

Domino Theory

Containment Policy

Satellite State

Shatterbelt

Buffer state

Russia’s “Near Abroad”

Proxy War

Topic 5.13 Geopolitical Theories

Define Geopolitics

What is a Geopolitical Theory?

Specific Geopolitical Theories (know theory and real world application) Ratzel Organic/Mackinder Heartland/Spykman Rimland/Wallerstein World Systems Theory

Topic 5.14 Forms of Governance

How are confederations, federal systems and Unitary systems different?

What are the characteristics of Primate Cities

What is a forward capital, why are they created and what are some examples?

Topic 5.15 Electoral Geography

What is the US census, how often is it and what is the data used for?

Describe reapportionment.

Describe redistricting.

What is Gerrymandering and how is it connected to redistricting?