BIOS Exam 2 Study Guide

• Chapter 26: The Circulatory System

  • What are the different types of circulatory systems?

    • Open circulatory system: Blood is not always contained within vessels.

    • Closed circulatory system: Blood is always contained within vessels.

  • What are the functions of the circulatory system?

    • Transport of oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to tissues

    • Removal of carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes from tissues

    • Regulation of body temperature

    • Protection against infection

  • What are the different types of blood vessels?

    • Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart

    • Veins: Carry blood to the heart

    • Capillaries: Tiny vessels that allow for exchange of materials between blood and tissues

  • What is blood pressure?

    • The force of blood against the walls of arteries

  • How is blood pressure regulated?

    • By the nervous system and hormones

  • What are the different types of heart disease?

    • Coronary artery disease

    • Heart attack

    • Stroke

    • Heart failure

  • How can I keep my heart healthy?

    • Eat a healthy diet

    • Exercise regularly

    • Maintain a healthy weight

    • Don't smoke

    • Manage stress

• Chapter 27: The Respiratory System

  • What are the functions of the respiratory system?

    • Gas exchange

    • Regulation of blood pH

    • Protection against infection

  • What are the different parts of the respiratory system?

    • Nose

    • Pharynx

    • Larynx

    • Trachea

    • Bronchi

    • Lungs

  • How does gas exchange occur in the lungs?

    • Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood

    • Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli

  • What is the role of hemoglobin in oxygen transport?

    • Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen.

  • What are the different types of respiratory diseases?

    • Asthma

    • Bronchitis

    • Pneumonia

    • Lung cancer

  • How can I keep my lungs healthy?

    • Don't smoke

    • Avoid secondhand smoke

    • Exercise regularly

    • Maintain a healthy weight

    • Get vaccinated against the flu and pneumonia

• Chapter 28: Osmoregulation and Excretion

  • What is osmoregulation?

    • The process of regulating the balance of water and electrolytes in the body

  • What are the different types of excretory systems?

    • Kidneys

    • Lungs

    • Skin

  • How do kidneys work?

    • Filter waste products from the blood

    • Reabsorb water and nutrients

    • Secrete hormones

  • What is the role of hormones in osmoregulation?

    • Hormones help to regulate the balance of water and electrolytes in the body.

  • What are the different types of kidney disease?

    • Kidney stones

    • Kidney failure

    • Urinary tract infection

  • How can I keep my kidneys healthy?

    • Drink plenty of fluids

    • Eat a healthy diet

    • Exercise regularly

    • Don't smoke

    • Limit alcohol intake

• Chapter 29: The Digestive System

  • What are the functions of the digestive system?

    • Digestion

    • Absorption

    • Elimination

  • What are the different parts of the digestive system?

    • Mouth

    • Esophagus

    • Stomach

    • Small intestine

    • Large intestine

    • Liver

    • Gallbladder

    • Pancreas

  • How does digestion occur in the stomach and small intestine?

    • The stomach breaks down food into chyme

    • The small intestine absorbs nutrients from chyme

  • What is the role of enzymes in digestion?

    • Enzymes help to break down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body.

  • What are the different types of digestive diseases?

    • Heartburn

    • GERD

    • Peptic ulcers

    • Gallstones

    • Pancreatitis

    • Inflammatory bowel disease

  • How can I keep my digestive system healthy?

    • Eat a healthy diet

    • Exercise regularly

    • Maintain a healthy weight

    • Don't smoke

    • Limit alcohol intake

• Chapter 36: Resource Acquisition and Transport in Vascular Plants

  • What are the different types of vascular tissue?

    • Xylem: Transports water and minerals up from the roots

    • Phloem: Transports sugars down from the leaves

  • How does water and minerals move through plants?

    • Water and minerals move through plants by transpiration.

  • What is the role of transpiration in water transport?

    • Transpiration is the evaporation of water from leaves.

    • This creates a tension that pulls water up from the roots.

  • How do plants transport sugars?

    • Sugars are transported through plants by phloem.

  • What are the different types of plant adaptations for resource acquisition?

    • C4 photosynthesis

      • This process is an adaptation to dry and hot environments, allowing plants to efficiently fix carbon dioxide. In C4 plants, carbon fixation occurs in the mesophyll cells, where CO2 is initially incorporated into a four-carbon compound. This compound is then transported to bundle-sheath cells, where it releases CO2 for use in the Calvin cycle, minimizing water loss by keeping stomata partially closed during the day.

    • CAM photosynthesis

      • Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) is another adaptation to arid environments. CAM plants open their stomata at night to take in CO2 when evaporation rates are lower. This CO2 is stored as organic acids overnight and is then released during the day for use in the Calvin cycle. This strategy allows CAM plants to conserve water by keeping their stomata closed during the hotter daytime

• Chapter 38: Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology

  • What are the different parts of a flower?

    • Sepals: Protect the developing bud

    • Petals: Attract pollinators

    • Stamens: Male reproductive organs

    • Carpels: Female reproductive organs

  • How does pollination occur?

    • Pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma.

  • What is double fertilization?

    • One sperm fertilizes the egg, and the other sperm fertilizes the central cell.

  • How do fruits develop?

    • Fruits develop from the ovary after fertilization.

  • What are the different types of seed dispersal?

    • Wind dispersal

    • Water dispersal

    • Animal dispersal

  • What are some applications of biotechnology in agriculture?

    • Genetic engineering

    • Tissue culture

    • Biopesticides

Metabolic rate

• Metabolic rate is the amount of energy used by an animal per unit of time.

• It can be measured in a variety of ways, such as by measuring the amount of oxygen consumed or the amount of heat produced.

• Metabolic rate is affected by a number of factors, including body size, activity level, and temperature.

• The three-quarter power law states that metabolic rate increases with animal mass raised to the three-quarter power.

• This means that larger animals have a higher metabolic rate than smaller animals, but the increase is not proportional to the increase in size.

Oxygen consumption

• Oxygen consumption is the amount of oxygen used by an animal per unit of time.

• It is a measure of how much energy the animal is using.

• Oxygen consumption is affected by a number of factors, including metabolic rate, activity level, and temperature.

• As you move from sitting in class to riding your bike, your oxygen consumption will increase.

• This is because your muscles are working harder and require more energy.

Temperature regulation in endotherms and ectotherms

• Endotherms are animals that can regulate their own body temperature.

• Ectotherms are animals that cannot regulate their own body temperature.

• Endotherms use a variety of mechanisms to regulate their body temperature, such as shivering, sweating, and panting.

• Ectotherms rely on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature, such as sunlight and warm rocks.

• As daytime temperature changes, endotherms and ectotherms regulate their body temperature differently.

• Endotherms will vasoconstrict vessels to their extremities to reduce heat loss in cooler temperatures.

• Ectotherms will move into the sunlight to absorb heat in cooler temperatures.

Energy use in animals

• Animals use energy for a variety of purposes, including basic life processes, activity, and growth.

• Basic life processes account for about 70% of energy use in animals.

• The remaining 30% of energy is used for activity and growth.

Essential amino acids

• Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.

• There are 20 amino acids, but only 9 of them are essential amino acids.

• Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from the diet.

• Essential amino acids are necessary for protein biosynthesis.

The effects of the hormone secretin

• Secretin is a hormone that is released by the small intestine in response to the presence of food.

• One of the effects of secretin is to stimulate the release of bicarbonate ions into the duodenum.

• Bicarbonate ions neutralize the acid that enters the duodenum with food from the stomach.

• This helps to protect the duodenum from damage.

The functioning of the pancreas and duodenum

• The pancreas is a gland that produces digestive enzymes.

• The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine.

• The pancreas and duodenum work together to digest food.

• The pancreas releases digestive enzymes into the duodenum through a duct.

• These enzymes help to break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

• If the duct that connects the pancreas to the duodenum becomes blocked, the digestive enzymes can back up into the pancreas and start to digest the pancreas.

Specialized functions of the digestive tract

• The digestive tract is responsible for breaking down food and absorbing nutrients.

• Different parts of the digestive tract have specialized functions.

• For example, the stomach stores food and begins the process of chemical digestion.

• The small intestine is responsible for the majority of nutrient absorption.

• The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes.¹

Glucose transport in the small intestine

• Glucose is a type of sugar that is an important source of energy for the body.

• Glucose is absorbed from the small intestine into the bloodstream.

• Glucose transport in the small intestine is an active process, which means that it requires energy.

• Glucose is transported across the epithelial cells of the small intestine by a glucose pump.

• The glucose pump uses ATP to move glucose against its concentration gradient.

Oxygen uptake in the fish gill

• Fish gills are responsible for taking up oxygen from the water.

• Oxygen uptake in the fish gill is a passive process, which means that it does not require energy.

• Oxygen diffuses from the water into the blood in the gills.

• The amount of oxygen that can be taken up by the gills is determined by the partial pressure of oxygen in the water.

• The partial pressure of oxygen is the pressure exerted by oxygen in a mixture of gases.

• The higher the partial pressure of oxygen, the more oxygen can be taken up by the gills.

The role of the respiratory control center in the medulla

• The respiratory control center in the medulla is responsible for controlling breathing.

• The respiratory control center initiates ventilation in response to a decrease in O2 or an increase in CO2.

• When the level of CO2 in the blood rises, the respiratory control center sends signals to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to contract.

• This causes the chest cavity to expand and air to be drawn into the lungs.

• When the level of CO2 in the blood falls, the respiratory control center sends signals to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to relax.

• This causes the chest cavity to shrink and air to be forced out of the lungs.

Lung function during inhalation and exhalation

• Inhalation is the process of breathing in.

• Exhalation is the process of breathing out.

• During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward.

• This causes the chest cavity to expand and air to be drawn into the lungs.

• During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upward.

• This causes the chest cavity to shrink and air to be forced out of the lungs.

Open circulatory systems

• An open circulatory system is a type of circulatory system in which blood comes into direct contact with body tissues.

• Open circulatory systems are found in many invertebrates, such as insects and mollusks.

• In an open circulatory system, the heart pumps blood into a cavity called the hemocoel.

• The blood then circulates through the hemocoel and comes into direct contact with body tissues.

• Open circulatory systems are less efficient than closed circulatory systems, but they are simpler and require less energy to operate.

Fetal and maternal hemoglobin

• Hemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen in the blood.

• Fetal hemoglobin is a type of hemoglobin that is found in the blood of fetuses.

• Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than maternal hemoglobin.

• This means that fetal hemoglobin can bind to oxygen more tightly than maternal hemoglobin.

• This is important because it allows the fetus to obtain oxygen from the mother's blood.

Fish and human circulatory systems

• Fish and human circulatory systems have some significant differences.

• In fish, blood flows in a single circuit.

• This means that blood flows from the heart to the gills, and then from the gills to the body tissues.

• In humans, blood flows in a double circuit.

• This means that blood flows from the heart to the lungs, and then from the lungs to the body tissues.

• Another difference between fish and human circulatory systems is that there is no oxygenated blood anywhere in the fish heart.

• In humans, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are mixed in the heart.

Arteries and veins

• Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.

• Veins are blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart.²

• Arteries have thicker walls than veins.

• This is because arteries need to be able to withstand the high pressure of blood being pumped from the heart.

• Veins have thinner walls than arteries.

• This is because veins do not need to be able to withstand high pressure.

• Veins also have valves that help to prevent blood from flowing backwards.

Blood pressure

• Blood pressure is the force of blood against the walls of the arteries.

• Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).

• The first number in a blood pressure reading is the systolic pressure.

• The systolic pressure is the pressure when the heart beats.

• The second number