By 1900, these strands of thinking had been sewn together to form a new fabric. Many of the old intellectual landmarks were vanishing. Christianity has been subjected to the most serious intellectual assault in its history. The dominant view of the physical universe since Newton has undergone significant change.

Darwin and Freud questioned the privileged status that Western intellectuals had given to humanity. Writers began to doubt logic. Liberalism and socialism's humanitarian values gave way to belligerent nationalism. European intellectuals were more adventurous than ever before, but they were also likely to be less confident and cheerful.

Literacy on the Continent increased gradually beginning in the 1860s as governments funded education.

Hungary began providing primary education in 1868, the United Kingdom in 1870, Switzerland in 1874, Italy in 1877, and France between 1878 and 1881. After 1871, the already superior education system of Prussia was extended throughout the German Empire.

By 1900, around 85 percent or more of the inhabitants in Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and Scandinavia could read, while Italy, Spain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and the Balkans still had illiteracy rates ranging from 30 to 60 percent.

The new primary education in the fundamental abilities of reading, writing, and basic arithmetic reflected and fostered societal change.

Both liberals and conservatives saw such modest instruction as required for newly enfranchised citizens to engage in orderly political action. They also believed that increased literacy would result in a more productive workforce. This aspect of the educational crusade mirrored the Enlightenment belief that correct knowledge will lead to correct action.

Literacy and its expansion, on the other hand, quickly became a power in their own right. The school-teaching profession increased rapidly in size and prominence, and it became a major source of employment for women. Those who learnt to read quickly realized that much of the knowledge that lead to greater careers and political positions was based on reading.

After establishing primary education systems, the major powers were forced to focus their emphasis on secondary education by the outbreak of World War I.

In another age, the issue would be democratic university education. Voltaire (1694–1778) would have felt at ease in a comprehensive discussion of scientific notions around the year 1850.

The fundamental Newtonian image of physical nature that he promoted remained dominant. Scientists continued to assume that nature worked on mechanical principles like a gigantic machine. At the turn of the century, knowledgeable people saw the physical world as rational, mechanical, and trustworthy.

Experimentation and observation might objectively disclose its laws. Scientific theory sought to represent physical nature as it existed in reality. Furthermore, by 1850, science had a robust institutional life in both French and German.

Furthermore, by 1850, science had a robust institutional life in French and German universities, as well as in new professional associations. The term "scientist" was coined by William Whewell of Cambridge University in the early 1830s and was widely used by the end of the century.

The growing literate populace produced a massive demand for fresh reading material. The number of newspapers, books, periodicals, mail-order catalogs, and libraries rapidly increased.

Cheap mass-circulation newspapers, such as Paris' Le Petit Journal and London's Daily Mail and Daily Express, were popular in their early days.

These publications offered advertisements informing readers about new consumer items accessible during the Second Industrial Revolution. Other publishers published newspapers with specific political or religious perspectives.

There has been an upsurge in the number of monthly and quarterly periodicals for families, women, and freethinking intellectuals. In the late nineteenth century, perhaps more people with differing opinions were able to get their thoughts into paper than at any other time in European history. Furthermore, more individuals than ever before could read their opinions.

There has been an upsurge in the number of monthly and quarterly periodicals for families, women, and freethinking intellectuals. In the late nineteenth century, perhaps more people with differing opinions were able to get their thoughts into paper than at any other time in European history.

Furthermore, more individuals than ever before could read their opinions. Because many of the new readers were only minimally educated and still illiterate on a wide range of subjects, the books and periodicals written for them were frequently substandard. The inexpensive newspapers thrived on stories of dramatic crimes and political scandals, as well as on advertisement pages.

The existence of religious publications was dependent on sectarian competition. Pornography had a thriving market.

Newspapers with front-page editorials were important players in the growing popular politics. The news may be controlled, but not in Central Europe.

The news could be managed, although in Central Europe, this is usually done by the government censor rather than the publication.

Critics cited a lack of public taste, but new education, new readers, and a plethora of new books and periodicals allowed for a popularization of information that has become a hallmark of our world.