Untitled Flashcard Set

Language Eras

• Old English (450–1150)
  The earliest form of English, heavily influenced by Germanic languages. Difficult for modern readers to understand. Famous example: Beowulf.

• Middle English (1150–1500)
  English after the Norman Conquest. Influenced by French and Latin. Grammar simplified; vocabulary expanded. Example: Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.

• Early Modern English (1500–1700)
  Period of Shakespeare and the King James Bible. Spelling and grammar became more standardized. Vocabulary expanded with Renaissance influence.

• Late Modern English (1700–present)
  English with major global spread due to colonialism, science, and technology. Vocabulary exploded with new inventions and borrowings. This is basically “modern” English we recognize today.

Graphology (on EME Prezi)

The study of the visual aspects of language, such as layout, font, spacing, capitalization, punctuation, and symbols. In Early Modern English, graphology shows how texts looked on the page, which often reflects printing styles.

Orthography

The spelling system of a language, including rules for how letters and sounds correspond. English orthography became more standardized in Early Modern English, but irregularities remain today.

Pragmatics

The study of how context influences meaning in language. It looks at implied meanings, politeness, tone, and social cues rather than just literal word meaning.

Word Classes / Parts of Speech

• Noun – A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
  Example: dog, city, happiness

• Proper Noun – A specific name for a unique person, place, or organization. Always capitalized.
  Example: London, Shakespeare, Microsoft

• Verb – A word that shows an action, state, or process.
  Example: run, is, think

• Transitive Verb – A verb that requires a direct object to complete its meaning.
  Example: She kicked the ball. ("the ball" is the object)

• Adjective – A word that describes a noun or pronoun.
  Example: happy, red, tall

• Predicate Adjective – An adjective that comes after a linking verb and describes the subject.
  Example: The sky is blue. ("blue" describes "sky")

• Adverb – A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, often ending in -ly.
  Example: quickly, very, silently

• Adverbs of Manner – A type of adverb that tells how something is done.
  Example: She spoke softly.

• Pronoun – A word that replaces a noun to avoid repetition.
  Example: he, she, it, they

• Possessive Pronouns – Pronouns that show ownership.
  Example: my, mine, your, theirs, ours

• Preposition – A word that shows the relationship between a noun/pronoun and another word in a sentence (often about direction, location, time).
  Example: in, on, under, with

• Spatial Prepositions – Prepositions specifically describing location in space.
  Example: above, below, beside, behind

• Interjection – A short word/phrase that expresses sudden emotion or reaction.
  Example: Wow!, Ouch!, Hey!

• Volitive Interjections – A type of interjection used to give commands, wishes, or requests.
  Example: Shh! Stop! Please!

• Conjunction – A word that joins words, phrases, or clauses.
  Example: and, but, because

• Subordinating Conjunctions – Conjunctions that introduce a dependent (subordinate) clause, showing cause, time, or condition.
  Example: because, although, while, if

• Coordinating Conjunctions – Conjunctions that join two equal parts (words, phrases, or independent clauses). Remember FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

• Determiners – Words that introduce nouns and show quantity, definiteness, or possession.
  Example: a, the, this, some, my

• Definite Article – The specific determiner the, used to refer to a particular noun.
  Example: the cat on the roof

Analogy

A comparison that highlights similarities between two things, often used for explanation or reasoning.
Example: Life is like a journey—it has many paths.

Audience

The intended reader or listener of a text. Audience affects word choice, tone, and style (e.g., formal vs informal, persuasive vs informative).