lec. 2 General Kinds of Research (1).docx

General Kinds of Research

In this section we discuss five general kinds of research: basic research, applied research, evaluation research, action research, and orientational research. Although these general research types of research can overlap at times, they have different purposes and are intended for different audiences.

Types of Research

In general, there are many different types of research methods to help professionals gain the information they seek.

The two main research methods commonly used are basic research, which helps expand existing knowledge, and applied research, which provides a solution to an existing problem.

Understanding the differences between these two types can help you choose which one is best for you to use in your future study. 

 Basic and Applied Research

Basic research is research aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical understanding about basic human and other natural processes.

Applied research is focused on answering practical questions to provide relatively immediate solutions

Basic and applied research can be viewed as two endpoints on a research continuum, with the center representing the idea that applied research can contribute to basic research and vice versa. Here is the continuum:

Basic............................Mixed.............................Applied

Basic research is usually conducted by using the most rigorous research methods (e.g., experimental) under tightly controlled laboratory conditions. The primary audience includes the other researchers in the research area. The key purpose of basic research is to develop a solid foundation of reliable and fundamental knowledge and theory on which future research can be built.

Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research) is mainly concerned with generalizations and the formulation of theory. It is driven by curiosity or interest in a subject. The main motivation is to expand men’s knowledge, not to create or invent something.

Many scientists believe that basic research lays the foundation for the applied research that follows. Fundamental, or basic, research is designed to help researchers better understand certain phenomena in the world; it looks at how things work.

This research attempts to broaden your understanding and expand scientific theories and explanations

Research examining the process of cognitive "priming" is an example of relatively basic research;

a comparison of the effectiveness of two approaches to counseling is an example of relatively applied research.

Applied Research

Applied research is designed to identify solutions to specific problems or find answers to specific questions

The research is meant to offer knowledge that is applicable and implementable.

For instance, applied research may include a study on ways to increase student involvement in the classroom. This research focuses on a defined problem and is solution-based.

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the society. It can be argued that the goal of applied research is to improve the human condition.

Applied research is focused on answering practical questions to provide relatively immediate solutions

Topics for applied research are often driven by current problems in different fieldsApplied research is often conducted in more natural settings (i.e., more realistic or real-world settings) than basic research. Applied research often leads to the development of interventions and programs aimed at improving societal conditions

Evaluation Research

Evaluation research is defined as a form of disciplined and systematic inquiry that is carried out to assess or appraise an object, program, practice, activity, or system with the purpose of providing information that will be of use in decision making.

Evaluation involves determining the worth, merit, or quality/value of an evaluation object/program/activity.

Merit refers to the intrinsic value of a program, for example, how effective it is in meeting the needs of those it is intended help.

Worth refers to extrinsic value to those outside the program, for example, to the larger community or society. A welfare program that gets jobs for recipients has merit for those who move out of poverty and worth to society by reducing welfare costs.

 Evaluation is traditionally classified according to its purpose:

•   Formative evaluation is used for the purpose of program improvement.
• Mid-term Evaluation
• Mid-term evaluation entails assessing how far a project has come and determining if it is in line with the set goals and objectives. Mid-term reviews allow the organization to determine if a change or modification of the implementation strategy is necessary, and it also serves for tracking the project. 

• Summative evaluation is used for the purpose of making summary judgments about a program and decisions to continue of discontinue the program.

In other words, summative evaluation aims at deciding if a program is sufficiently effective to be continued or replicated.

Let’s bring an example of evaluating research study questions for surgeons.

There are several strategies that surgeons can use - to review the literature, evaluate research study questions, and determine whether scientific evidence should be applied to their clinical practice.

One strategy for evaluating the implications of a research question is outlined by the pattern of letters -FINER—feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant. FINER provides a framework that prompts the reader to ask several important questions when considering a research study.

Evaluating Questions-Examples

• Is the study feasible and adequately powered to answer the specific research question?
• Does the study address a topic that is interesting to the surgical community?
• Is the research novel or innovative, and does the study meet all ethical standards of research conduct?
• Finally, do the results from the study change surgical practice or policy, and do they merit further scientific research or evidence?

 Also currently popular way to classify evaluation is to divide it into five types:

• Needs assessment, which ask this question: Is there a need for this type of program?

• Theory assessment, which asks this question: Is this program conceptualized in a way that it should work?

• Implementation assessment, which asks: Was this program implemented properly and according to the program plan?

• Impact assessment, which asks: Did this program have an impact on its intended targets?

• Efficiency assessment, which asks: Is this program cost effective?

Evaluation is generally done by program evaluators and is focused on specific programs or products.

Action Research

Is a unique form of applied research. It is a reflective process of progressive problem solving. It is also called "practitioner research" because of the involvement of the actual practitioner in real life.

Action implies that the practitioner is involved in the collection of data, analysis, and the interpretation of results. He or she is also involved in implementing results of the research and is thus well placed to judge the effectiveness of the interventions

Action research refers to the process of examining your actions, assessing their effectiveness in bringing about the desired outcome and choosing a course of action based on your results.

Action research focuses on solving practitioner’s local problems. It is generally conducted by the practitioners after they have learned about the methods of research and research concepts that are discussed in your textbook. It is important to understand that action research is also a state of mind; for example, teachers who are action researchers are constantly observing their students for patterns and thinking about ways to improve instruction, classroom management, and so forth.

It typically follows a predefined process that is repeated over time. A simple illustrative example:

• Identify a problem to be studied
• Collect data on the problem
• Organize, analyze, and interpret the data
• Develop a plan to address the problem
• Implement the plan
• Evaluate the results of the actions taken
• Identify a new problem

Repeat the process

Orientational Research

Orientational research is done for the purpose of advancing an ideological position. It is traditionally called critical theory.

• Orientational research is focused on some form of inequality, discrimination, or stratification in society. Some areas in which inequality manifests itself are large differences in income, wealth, access to high quality education, power, and occupation.
• Here are some major areas of interest to orientational researchers:
• • Class stratification (i.e., inequality resulting from one’s economic class in society).
• • Gender stratification (i.e., inequality resulting from one’s gender).
• • Ethnic and racial stratification (i.e., inequality resulting from one’s ethnic or racial grouping), etc.
• Many orientational researchers work for universities or interest group organizations

Sources of Knowledge

In this section we discuss how people learn about the world around them and gain knowledge. The major ways we learn can be classified into experience, expert opinion, and reasoning.

Experience

• The idea here is that knowledge comes from experience. Historically, this view was called empiricism (i.e., original knowledge comes from experience).
• The term empirical means "based on observation, experiment, or experience."

Expert Opinion

• Because we don’t want to and don’t have time to conduct research on everything, people
• frequently rely on expert opinion as they learn about the world. Note, however, that if
• you rely on an expert’s opinion it is important to make sure that the expert is an expert in
• the specific area under discussion and you should check to see if the expert has a vested interest in the issue.

Reasoning.

Historically, this idea was called rationalism (i.e., original knowledge comes from thought and reasoning).

Structure of Reasoning:

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning reaches from general facts to specific facts

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning reaches from specific facts to general facts.

• Deductive reasoning (i.e., the process of drawing a specific conclusion from a set of premises). Deductive reasoning is the classical approach used by the great rationalists in the history of western civilization. It is reasoning from general to particular.

• Inductive reasoning (i.e., reasoning from the particular to the general). The conclusion from inductive reasoning is probabilistic (i.e., you make a statement about what will probably happen). The so called “problem of induction” is that the future might not resemble the present.

Scientific Methods

There are several scientific methods. The two major methods are the inductive method and the deductive method.

The deductive method involves the following three steps:

1. State the hypothesis (based on theory or research literature).

2. Collect data to test the hypothesis

3. Make decision to accept or reject the hypothesis.

The inductive method

This approach also involves three steps:

1. Observe the world.

2. Search for a pattern in what is observed.

3. Make a generalization about what is occurring

Inductive research

Inductive research, also known as theory-building research, is designed to collect data that may help develop a new theory about a process or phenomenon.

This type of research examines observations and patterns and offers several hypotheses to explain these patterns. Inductive research moves from the specific to the general.

Inductive research is often the first step in theory generation and may lead to additional research, such as deductive research, to further test possible hypotheses.

Deductive research

Deductive, or theory-testing, research is the opposite of inductive research and moves from the broad to the specific. (from the top to bottom)

Researchers choose a hypothesis from the research literature/theory and test its accuracy through experimentation or observation

Virtually any application of science includes the use of both the deductive and the inductive approaches to the scientific method either in a single study or over time.

The inductive method is as “bottom up” method that is especially useful for generating theories and hypotheses; the deductive method is a “top down” method that is especially useful for testing theories and hypotheses.

The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation

• Science is also an approach for the generation of knowledge. It relies on a mixture of empiricism (i.e., the collection of data) and rationalism (i.e., the use of reasoning and theory construction and testing).

Science has many distinguishing characteristics:

• Science is progressive.

• Science is rational.

• Science is creative.

• Science is dynamic.

• Science is open.

• Science is "Critical."

• Science is never-ending

Theory

The word "theory" most simply means "explanation." Theories explain "How" and "Why" something operates as it does. Some theories are highly developed and encompass

a large terrain (i.e., "big" theories or "grand" theories); others theories are "smaller"

theories or briefer explanations

The Principle of Evidence

According to the principle of evidence, what is gained in empirical research is evidence, NOT proof. This means that knowledge based on educational research is ultimately tentative. Therefore, please eliminate the word "proof" from your vocabulary when you talk about research results. Empirical research provides evidence; it does not provide proof. Also note that, evidence increases when a finding has been replicated. Hence, you should take NOT draw firm conclusions from a single research study.

Objectives of Research

There are five major objectives of research.

1. Exploration. This is done when you are trying to generate ideas about something.

2. Description. This is done when you want to describe the characteristics of something or some phenomenon.

3. Explanation. This is done when you want to show how and why a phenomenon operates as it does. If you are interested in causality, you are usually interested in explanation.

4. Prediction. This is your objective when your primary interest is in making accurate predictions.

5. Influence. This objective is a little different. It involves the application of research results to impact the world.

One convenient and useful way to classify research is into exploratory research, descriptive research, explanatory research, predictive research, and demonstration research