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Political Philosophy - Flashcards
Introduction
What is the definition of philosophy?
Comes from the Greek words philos (love) and sophia (wisdom), meaning "love of wisdom."
What did Socrates believe about philosophy?
He believed philosophy is about taking care of our souls by seeking knowledge and understanding.
How did Leo Strauss define philosophy?
As the search for universal knowledge, aiming to understand the whole of existence.
What is political philosophy?
A type of philosophy that focuses on human beings as political animals (as members of societies).
What is the main question of political philosophy?
What is the best political order?
What is the difference between opinion and true knowledge in political philosophy?
Political philosophy seeks true knowledge, not just opinions.
What is the goal of political philosophy?
To understand the nature of political life and discover the right or good political order.
What is the role of value judgments in political philosophy?
Decisions should be based on reason and premises, not personal opinions.
It focuses on what ought to be—how things should ideally work.
What is political art?
The practice of morally improving the members of a political community or city-state.
What is a political community?
The most complete form of human society is the polis (city-state).
Ancient political communities had no concept of the modern state.
Koinonia politike refers to a political association or community.
What are political regimes?
A polis could have different political systems, such as monarchy, democracy, or oligarchy.
Political philosophy examines the pros and cons of each system through reasoned analysis.
What is international relations (IR)?
An academic field studying the changing relationships between states and non-state actors.
Became an academic discipline in 1919.
What are the key ideas in International Relations?
It focuses on concepts like justice, freedom, and most importantly, peace.
Plato
The Allegory of the Cave and International Relations
How does the Allegory of the Cave relate to perception in IR?
Leaders and countries often act based on false perceptions, like prisoners mistaking shadows for reality.
How does the Allegory of the Cave relate to leadership in IR?
Wise leaders, like the freed prisoner, should guide others toward truth in politics and global affairs.
How does the Allegory of the Cave show resistance to change in IR?
People reject new ideas that challenge their beliefs, just as prisoners refuse to accept the outside world.
How does the Allegory of the Cave relate to constructivism in IR?
Like prisoners shaped by shadows, nations act based on shared ideas and beliefs.
Plato’s Tripartite Soul
What are the three parts of the soul and their virtues?
Reason → Seeks truth (Wisdom).
Spirit → Seeks honor (Courage).
Appetite → Seeks pleasure (Temperance).
Three Parts of the State
What are the three parts of the state?
Guardians → Wise rulers.
Auxiliaries → Soldiers and enforcers.
Workers → Farmers, builders, craftsmen.
Plato’s Political Regimes
What are Plato’s just political regimes?
Aristocracy → Rule by the wise.
Monarchy → Rule by a virtuous leader.
What are Plato’s unjust political regimes?
Timocracy → Rule by honor-seekers (military rule).
Oligarchy → Rule by the rich.
Democracy → Rule by the majority, driven by desires.
Tyranny → Rule by a selfish dictator.
Aristotle
Main Ideas
How are politics and ethics connected?
Both aim for the highest good—ethics guides individuals, while politics guides society.
Why are humans political animals?
People naturally live in communities and need society to thrive.
What is Aristotle’s view on citizenship?
Citizens are those who participate in government.
In a dictatorship, there are no real citizens because they have no power.
What is the rule of law?
Laws should be fair, apply to everyone, and prevent corruption.
Why is justice the most important virtue?
Justice ensures fairness by balancing:
Lawfulness → Following the rules.
Equality → Treating people fairly.
Fairness → Giving people what they deserve.
How should power be used?
Leaders should serve the people, not themselves.
Aristotle’s Types of Regimes
What are Aristotle’s "good" regimes?
Kingship (Monarchy) → Rule by one for the common good.
Aristocracy → Rule by the wise and virtuous.
Polity → A stable mix of democracy and oligarchy, led by the middle class.
What are Aristotle’s "bad" regimes?
Tyranny → Rule by one person for personal gain.
Oligarchy → Rule by the rich, benefiting only the wealthy.
Democracy → Rule by the majority, often unstable.
Cicero
Commonwealth (Res Publica)
What is the commonwealth (Res Publica)?
A community united by laws and working for the common good.
The Republic
What is the best form of government, according to Cicero?
A republic, which combines:
Monarchy → Strong leadership.
Aristocracy → Wisdom and virtue.
Democracy → People's participation.
Stoicism
What are the key ideas of Stoicism?
Control reactions, not events.
Virtue is the highest goal.
Seek inner peace.
True happiness comes from living by moral values.
Law of Nature
What is the Law of Nature?
A universal moral law discovered through reason, guiding people toward justice and virtue.
What are the key features of the Law of Nature?
Applies to everyone.
Not created by humans.
Aligns with justice and fairness.
Aquinas
Faith, Reason, and Ethics
What is Aquinas’ view on faith and reason?
Both come from God and cannot contradict each other.
How does Aquinas combine faith and reason?
Faith → Includes divine truths beyond human understanding (e.g., Trinity).
Reason → Uses intellect and senses to understand the world.
What is Aquinas' view on ethics?
Ethics is about following natural law and divine law to live virtuously and achieve salvation.
Virtues and Divine Grace
What are the three types of virtues?
Intellectual virtues → Knowledge and understanding (e.g., prudence, intelligence).
Moral virtues → Balance between extremes (e.g., courage avoids recklessness and cowardice).
Theological virtues → Faith, hope, and charity, which guide people toward God.
What is Divine Grace?
A gift from God that helps people achieve salvation.
Strengthens the soul to live virtuously and overcome sin.
What is the final goal of human life?
Achieving salvation through a virtuous life in alignment with God’s will.
Best Regime
What is Aquinas’ ideal government?
Monarchy → A wise and just ruler ensures order, like how the soul rules the body.
Can people resist a bad ruler?
Yes, if the ruler becomes a tyrant and governs unjustly.
Theory of Just War
When is war justified?
What are the three conditions for a just war?
Legitimate authority → Only a lawful ruler can declare war.
Just cause → War must be a response to a real wrong (e.g., self-defense).
Right intention → The goal must be peace, not personal gain.
What is the purpose of war?
To stop evil and restore peace.
Limits in War (Ius in Bello)
What are Aquinas’ rules for conduct in war?
War must be fair and proportionate.
Avoid harming innocent people.
Comparison: Just War Theory (Aquinas vs. Grotius)
How does Aquinas’ Just War Theory compare to Grotius’?
Aquinas → Based on God’s law, war is justified to correct evil.
Grotius → Based on natural law, war is justified for self-defense and justice.
How do Aquinas and Grotius differ on the purpose of war?
Aquinas → War is about restoring moral order.
Grotius → War is about maintaining justice and legal rights.
How do Aquinas and Grotius view intervention in war?
Aquinas → Does not emphasize intervention in other states.
Grotius → A state can intervene if another government commits severe injustices.Machiavelli
The Prince
What are the main concepts of The Prince?
Power → Politics is about gaining and keeping power.
Virtù → A ruler needs strength, intelligence, and adaptability.
Fortuna → Luck is unpredictable; rulers must control its effects.
What is the message of The Prince?
Politics and morality do not always align.
A ruler must do whatever is necessary to stay in power.
The ends justify the means if they protect the state.
What is the goal of The Prince?
Maintain unity and stability in the state.
A ruler should prioritize the state's survival over personal morality.
Discourses on the Ten Books of Titus Livy
How do the people and the prince differ in politics?
People → Want rulers who serve the common good.
Princes → Are easier to corrupt and often seek personal gain.
How does a republic compare to a monarchy?
Republic (Vivero Libero = Liberty)
Encourages freedom and citizen participation.
Maintains order because people will support the common good.
Monarchy (Vivero Sicuro = Security)
Focuses on stability but excludes citizens from decisions.
Uses coercion and violence, which can lead to corruption.Jean Bodin - Six Books of the Commonwealth
Commonwealth (La République)
What is Bodin’s definition of a commonwealth?
A well-ordered government where families and their shared concerns are ruled by a sovereign power.
What is the purpose of the commonwealth?
To create conditions where people can live virtuous, thoughtful, and pious lives.
What are the three elements of the commonwealth?
Families → The foundation of society.
Sovereign Power → The authority that governs and creates order.
Common Concern → The shared interests and responsibilities of the community.
Sovereign Power (Puissance Souveraine)
What is sovereignty according to Bodin?
Absolute → The sovereign has supreme authority over the state.
Perpetual → Sovereignty lasts forever and cannot be divided.
What is the main role of the sovereign?
To make general laws that govern the commonwealth.
What are the key rights of a sovereign?
Declare war and peace.
Make alliances with other nations.
Appoint officials.
Final authority in legal disputes.
Demand loyalty from subjects.
Positive Law
What is positive law?
Laws created by human authority, such as parliament or a ruler.
These laws apply to all subjects in the commonwealth.
How does positive law relate to sovereignty?
The sovereign has the exclusive power to create, change, and enforce laws.
Limits to Absolute Sovereignty
Is the sovereign above all laws?
The sovereign is above human laws but must respect divine and natural laws.
Power should not be used arbitrarily (unfairly).
Can the sovereign impose taxes freely?
No, the sovereign must have the people's consent to impose taxes.
Bodin vs. Cicero on the Commonwealth
How does Bodin’s concept of the commonwealth differ from Cicero’s?
Bodin → The commonwealth is ruled by an absolute sovereign to maintain order.
Cicero → The commonwealth is a shared system based on law and the common good.
How do Bodin and Cicero view sovereignty?
Bodin → Sovereignty is indivisible and belongs to a single ruler.
Cicero → Power should be balanced between monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.
Thomas Hobbes
Key Concepts
What was Hobbes' view on materialism?
He believed everything, including human thought, can be explained through physical causes, not spiritual forces.
What is the “state of nature” according to Hobbes?
A world without government where life is chaotic, full of fear, and dangerous.
How did Hobbes describe life in the state of nature?
“Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
Why do people leave the state of nature?
To avoid constant fear and violence, people agree to form a government.
What is the social contract?
People give up some freedoms to a ruler in exchange for security and order.
The sovereign’s power comes from the people’s consent.
What type of government did Hobbes prefer?
Monarchy → A strong ruler is needed to maintain peace and prevent chaos.
Why do people obey the government?
To stay alive and safe.
Without government, there would be constant conflict.
What is the role of natural laws in Hobbes' theory?
Natural laws limit the sovereign’s power, but the ruler is still above the people.
Social and Political Order
What is Hobbes’ solution to social chaos?
A strong, central authority (sovereign) must enforce laws.
Why can’t people rule themselves?
Humans are naturally selfish and will always fight for power.
How does Hobbes justify absolute power?
A powerful ruler prevents war and disorder.
People willingly give up rights to ensure peace.
What is Hobbes’ view on individual freedom?
Freedom without rules is dangerous.
People must sacrifice some freedom for security.John Locke
Law of Nature and State of Nature
What is the Law of Nature according to Locke?
A moral guide that tells people to respect life, liberty, and property, even without government.
What is the State of Nature according to Locke?
A state of perfect freedom where people live by reason and morality, not chaos.
Is the State of Nature a state of war?
No, but conflicts can arise, especially over property.
Natural Rights
What are Locke’s three natural rights?
Life → The right to live without threat.
Liberty → The right to act freely within the Law of Nature.
Property → The right to own and control possessions.
Why are natural rights important?
They exist before and above government.
The government’s job is to protect them.
Consent and Social Contract
Why is consent important in Locke’s theory?
People must agree to be governed.
No ruler has power unless people willingly accept their rule.
What is Locke’s social contract?
People give up some freedom to create a limited government.
The government only exists to protect natural rights.
What happens if the government fails to protect rights?
People have the right to overthrow it.
Division of Power
Why must power be divided?
To prevent tyranny and protect freedoms.
What are the three branches of power in Locke’s theory?
Legislative → Makes laws.
Executive → Enforces laws.
Federative → Handles foreign policy.
Liberty
How does Locke define liberty?
Freedom under laws, not lawlessness.
No one can control others without legal limits.
How is liberty protected?
Constitutionalism → Laws that limit government power.
Rule of Law → Clear, fair, and consistent laws.
Comparison: State of Nature (Hobbes vs. Locke)
How does Locke’s State of Nature differ from Hobbes’?
Hobbes → Chaotic, full of fear and war.
Locke → Peaceful, guided by morality, but with occasional disputes.
How do Hobbes and Locke see freedom?
Hobbes → People must give up all freedom for security.
Locke → People keep their freedom but follow fair laws.
Comparison: Law of Nature (Locke vs. Cicero)
How does Locke’s Law of Nature compare to Cicero’s?
Cicero → Based on universal justice and duty to the common good.
Locke → Focuses on individual rights to life, liberty, and property.
What is the key difference between Locke and Cicero?
Cicero → Law of Nature is about virtue and morality.
Locke → Law of Nature is about personal rights and protection.
Hugo Grotius
De Jure Belli ac Pacis (Laws of War and Peace)
What is De Jure Belli ac Pacis?
A book by Grotius that established rules for war and peace based on natural law.
What was the goal of De Jure Belli ac Pacis?
To create a universal legal framework for governing wars and international relations.
Natural Law
What is Grotius’ concept of Natural Law?
A set of universal moral rules that apply to all people, everywhere.
Exists independent of religion, based on human reason.
Why is Natural Law important?
It ensures justice and fairness in human affairs.
Governments must follow natural law when making decisions.
Ius ad Bellum (Justification for War)
When is war justified according to Grotius?
Self-defense → Protecting against an attack.
Recovering what is ours → Taking back stolen property.
Punishment → Responding to serious crimes.
What are the key principles of Ius ad Bellum?
War must be a last resort.
It must be proportionate and justified.
Only legitimate governments can declare war.
Ius in Bello (Conduct in War)
What are Grotius’ rules for conduct in war (Ius in Bello)?
Actions in war must be necessary and fair.
Avoid harming civilians whenever possible.
War should aim to restore peace, not cause destruction.
What is Grotius’ stance on mercy in war?
Even in war, acts of mercy are important.
Pardoning enemies can help restore peace.
Comparison: Law of Nature (Grotius vs. Locke vs. Cicero)
How does Grotius' Law of Nature compare to Locke’s?
Grotius → Based on justice and fairness, guiding legal principles.
Locke → Focuses on individual rights (life, liberty, property).
How does Grotius' Law of Nature compare to Cicero’s?
Grotius → Law of Nature is rational and universal, guiding laws and war.
Cicero → Law of Nature is about virtue and duty to the common good.
Comparison: Just War Theory (Grotius vs. Aquinas)
How does Grotius' Just War Theory compare to Aquinas’?
Aquinas → Based on God’s law; war is justified to correct evil.
Grotius → Based on natural law; war is justified for self-defense and justice.
How do Grotius and Aquinas differ on the purpose of war?
Aquinas → War is about restoring moral order.
Grotius → War is about maintaining justice and legal rights.
How do Grotius and Aquinas view intervention in war?
Aquinas → Does not emphasize intervention in other states.
Grotius → A state can intervene if another government commits severe injustices.
Montesquieu
Spirit of the Laws
What is The Spirit of the Laws?
A book by Montesquieu that explains how different governments function and what makes them stable.
What is the main idea of The Spirit of the Laws?
Laws should fit the society they govern.
Climate, culture, and economy influence political systems.
Regimes
What are the four types of government according to Montesquieu?
Democracy → Rule by the people.
Aristocracy → Rule by a small, elite group.
Monarchy → Rule by a king or queen with fixed laws.
Despotism → Rule by one person with absolute power.
What is the principle of democracy?
Political virtue → Citizens must work for the common good.
What is the principle of aristocracy?
Moderation → Leaders should avoid abusing their power.
What is the principle of monarchy?
Honor → The ruler must respect traditions and institutions (church, courts, etc.).
What is the principle of despotic states?
Fear → The ruler controls everything without laws or limits.
Liberty
What is liberty according to Montesquieu?
People feel safe and free under fair laws.
Liberty means protection from government abuse.
How is liberty protected?
Laws must be clear and fair.
Power must be divided to prevent tyranny.
Separation of Powers
Why is the separation of powers important?
Prevents one person or group from becoming too powerful.
Ensures fair governance and protects freedom.
What are the three branches of government?
Legislative → Makes the laws.
Executive → Enforces the laws.
Judicial → Interprets the laws (courts).
What happens if power is not divided?
Tyranny → A single ruler or group controls everything.
Utilitarianism
What is Utilitarianism?
What is the basic idea of utilitarianism?
Actions are good if they make the most people happy.
The goal is to increase pleasure and reduce pain.
A. Jeremy Bentham
What is Utilitarianism according to Bentham?
How did Bentham define utilitarianism?
An action is good if it creates the greatest happiness for the most people.
All types of pleasure are equal.
Main Ideas of Bentham
What are Bentham’s key ideas?
Pleasure = Good, Pain = Bad.
Every decision should be based on how much happiness or pain it creates.
All pleasures are measured the same way (eating candy = reading a book, if both bring the same happiness).
Hedonic Calculus
What is the Hedonic Calculus?
A way to measure happiness based on:
Intensity → How strong is the pleasure?
Duration → How long does it last?
Certainty → How sure is it to happen?
Nearness → How soon will it happen?
Why is the Hedonic Calculus important?
It helps people make rational decisions by comparing different pleasures and pains.
B. John Stuart Mill
What is Utilitarianism according to Mill?
How did Mill change Bentham’s utilitarianism?
Not all pleasures are equal → Some pleasures are better than others.
Intellectual pleasures (e.g., learning, art, love) are more valuable than physical pleasures (e.g., eating, sleeping).
Civil Liberty
What is civil liberty according to Mill?
People should be free to live as they choose, as long as they do not harm others.
The Harm Principle
What is the Harm Principle?
The government can stop people if they harm others.
The government cannot control people just because it thinks it’s “for their own good.”
Three Freedoms
What are Mill’s three freedoms?
Freedom of Thought → People can think and express any opinion, even unpopular ones.
Freedom of Action → People can live however they choose.
Freedom of Association → People can join groups and form communities.
C. Immanuel Kant
Ideas About Morality
How does Kant define morality?
Good actions come from duty, not consequences.
The only truly good thing is a good will (doing the right thing because it’s right).
Categorical Imperative
What is the Categorical Imperative?
A rule to decide if an action is moral:
Rule 1: Universal Law → Only do things you would be okay with everyone doing.
Rule 2: Respect for People → Never use people just to get what you want.
Definition of Kantian Ethics
How does Kant’s morality differ from utilitarianism?
Kant → Morality is about doing the right thing, no matter what.
Utilitarianism → Morality is about creating the most happiness, even if some people suffer.
G.W.F. Hegel
Dialectic Method
What is Hegel’s dialectic method?
A way of thinking that moves through three steps:
Thesis → An idea or belief.
Antithesis → The opposite of that idea.
Synthesis → A new understanding that combines parts of both.
How does the dialectic method work?
People start with a belief (thesis).
They face a challenge or opposing idea (antithesis).
This leads to a new, higher level of understanding (synthesis).
Self-Consciousness and Truth
What is self-consciousness in Hegel’s philosophy?
When people become fully aware of themselves and their place in the world.
How does self-consciousness lead to truth?
By understanding themselves, people discover reality and absolute truth.
The Spirit
What is "the Spirit" (Geist) according to Hegel?
A force that guides human understanding and history.
It represents the growth of human reason and knowledge over time.
How does the Spirit develop?
Through the dialectic process, as society moves from one idea to another.
The State as an Ethical Community
What is the purpose of the state according to Hegel?
The state is more than laws and power—it is an ethical community.
It helps people connect to something greater than themselves.
How do individuals find meaning in the state?
By contributing to the common good.
By following shared values and traditions.
Sittlichkeit and Moralität
What is Sittlichkeit?
The ethical customs and values of a community.
It represents how people live together in harmony.
What is Moralität?
Individual morality, based on personal values and conscience.
How do Sittlichkeit and Moralität relate?
Personal morality (Moralität) is important but limited.
True ethical life happens when individuals follow community values (Sittlichkeit).
War and the State
What is Hegel’s view on war?
War has ethical importance because it unites people to defend shared values.
It strengthens the state by forcing people to work together.
Why was Hegel skeptical about international law?
He believed it only works if a stronger power enforces it.
Without force, states will always act in their own interests.
Karl Marx
Key Beliefs
What were Marx’s main beliefs?
Society is divided into two classes:
Capitalists (bourgeoisie) → Own businesses and wealth.
Workers (proletariat) → Work for wages but don’t own anything.
The capitalist system is unfair because it exploits workers.
Communism will replace capitalism, creating an equal society.
Three Aspects of Marx’s Doctrine (L. Kołakowski)
What is the Romantic Element in Marx’s ideas?
Marx imagined a future society with no government, no social classes, and no private property.
People would live in harmony, working together for the common good.
What is the Promethean-Faustian Element in Marx’s ideas?
Humans should control their own destiny instead of relying on capitalism.
The working class (proletariat) will lead a revolution to take power from the capitalists.
What is the Deterministic Element in Marx’s ideas?
History follows fixed laws that will lead to communism.
This process is called historical materialism, meaning economic changes shape society over time.
Critique of State, Religion, and Nation
What was Marx’s critique of the state?
The state is not neutral → It protects the rich and exploits the poor.
Governments only exist to keep the ruling class in power.
What was Marx’s view on religion?
Religion is used to control people and make them accept their suffering.
He called religion "the opium of the people", meaning it distracts them from their real problems.
What was Marx’s view on the nation (nationalism)?
Nationalism is a trick used by the ruling class to divide workers.
Workers from different countries should unite and fight against capitalism together.
Communism
What is communism according to Marx?
A society where there is no private property, and everyone shares resources.
No rich or poor → Everyone is equal.
People work for the common good, not for profit.
The state disappears because people organize society themselves.
What are the key goals of communism?
Abolish capitalism.
No social classes.
No private ownership of businesses or land.
People take what they need instead of competing for money.
Freedom and Human Development
How did Marx define freedom?
Freedom means controlling the conditions of life, not just having personal rights.
People should be free from exploitation.
Why did Marx criticize liberalism’s idea of freedom?
Liberalism supports individual freedom, but in capitalism, people are still controlled by their jobs and money.
Real freedom only exists when people control the economy together.
Critique of Capitalism
What were Marx’s main criticisms of capitalism?
The rich exploit the workers.
Capitalism creates huge inequality.
Workers produce goods, but they don’t get the full value of their work—capitalists keep the profits.
Capitalism will eventually collapse, and communism will take over.
Why did Marx believe capitalism is unstable?
It creates too much competition, causing crises (e.g., financial crashes, unemployment).
The rich get richer, while the poor get poorer, leading to revolution.
Historical Materialism
What is historical materialism?
Marx’s idea that history is shaped by economics.
Society changes when the way people work and produce goods changes.
How does history develop, according to Marx?
Primitive Communism → Small tribes share everything.
Slavery → The first class society (masters vs. slaves).
Feudalism → Nobles own land, and peasants work for them.
Capitalism → Business owners (bourgeoisie) exploit workers (proletariat).
Socialism → Workers take power and redistribute wealth.
Communism → A society with no classes and no state.
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