Unit 3.1-3.6 - Review 9/26

In the French and Indian War, a coalition of colonists and the British fought the French and their Native American allies for control of the Ohio River Valley region. The British and colonists won, establishing British dominance in North America, but also creating immense war debt.

The Proclamation of 1763 prohibited colonists from moving west of the Appalachian Mountains in order to decrease tensions with Native Americans. Colonists were outraged and continued to move west, creating mounting tensions with Britain.

To protest legislation like the Stamp Acts, some colonists would attack British tax collectors and tar and feather them. This method of torture and humiliation was favored by the Sons of Liberty.

The Boston Tea Party was part of the protest in response to the Tea Act, which granted the British East India Tea Company a monopoly over the tea trade.

At the Second Continental Congress, the colonies declared war on Britain yet still sent an Olive Branch Petition to the king, asking for him to redress their grievances to prevent the outbreak of war.

French assistance, particularly the French navy, was one of the primary reasons the colonists were able to win the Revolutionary War.

Timeline

<aside> ⚔ French & Indian War (1754-1763)

• Most important of the colonial wars

• Caused by conflict between the British colonists and the French over the Ohio River Valley; the war began when Washington was sent to stop the French from building a fort in the area and was forced to surrender

• The French allied with the Native Americans to fight the British colonists, who allied with imperial British forces; the British won after William Pitt changed the strategy of the war to focus on capturing Canada

• Outcomes: permanently altered the balance of power between the British, French, and Natives in the colonies, all but drove out the French from the Americas, France gave their Louisiana territories to Spain </aside>

<aside> 🪶 Albany Congress (1754)

• Called together delegates from several colonies (not all) to discuss defense in the French & Indian War and attempt to negotiate an alliance with the Iroquois

• Showed that colonies could unite despite differences

Albany Plan for Union

• Plan proposed by Benjamin Franklin for colonial homerule during the French and Indian War that dealt with defense and Native American affairs

• Rejected by the colonies because it infringed upon their individual governments; rejected by the British because it gave the colonies too much power </aside>

<aside> 📜 Treaty of Paris (1763)

• Treaty that officially ended the French & Indian War

• Effectively removed the French from North America, and France gave their unsettled lands west of the Mississippi River to Spain as compensation for Spanish support in the war </aside>

<aside> 📜 Proclamation of 1763

• Issued by the British imperial government in response to Pontiac’s Rebellion in an attempt to deal with colonial/Native American tensions

• Temporarily forbade colonists from settling west of the Appalachians; this angered the colonists and they largely ignored as they saw it as an attack on their freedom </aside>

<aside> ⚖ Stamp Act (1765)

• Taxed all published materials and legal documents; allowed for trying offenders in admirality courts where juries were not allowed

• Extremely unpopular in the colonies, and may have been the single most important event leading to the American Revolution

• Put in place to raise revenue to support new British military forces in the colonies

• Led to the Stamp Act Congress, which brought together delegates from the colonies who decided to boycott British goods in protest until the Stamp Act was repealed; the British PM caved under economic pressure and eventually repealed the act </aside>

<aside> ⚖ Townshend Acts (1767)

• Put in place by the British imperial government to punish the colonies for protesting the Stamp Act

• Taxed glass, white lead, paper, paint, silk, and tea; the money paid the salaries of British officials working in the colonies

• These acts were also very unpopular in the colonies, especially the tax on tea; Parliament eventually repealed these as well after colonial protest </aside>

<aside> ⚖ Tea Act (1773)

• The British government granted the British East India Company a monopoly on the American tea trade to try to prevent it from going bankrupt; the tea was taxed, but the price was still lower than other tea companies

• The Americans saw this as an attempt to trick them into paying taxes to the British and dumped tea in the Boston harbor in a form of protest (Boston Tea Party) </aside>

<aside> ⚖ Intolerable Acts/Coercive Acts (1774)

• Put into place by the British imperial government to punish Boston for the Boston Tea Party

• Closed the Boston Harbor until the damages were paid, revoked Massachusetts’ charter and made it a royal colony, and reinstated the Quartering Act in Boston </aside>

<aside> 🪶 First Continental Congress (1774)

• 12 of 13 colonies were present at the Congress; Georgia did not send delegates because they were currently being aided by British troops in conflicts with the Creek natives

• Congress restated allegiance to the King; independence was not on the table, and the colonists just wanted their grievances to be redressed

• Established the Suffolk Resolves, which called for a boycott of British goods and the creation of a militia, and wrote the Declarations & Resolves, which petitioned for redress of colonial grievances

• Wrote The Association (most significant act of the Congress), which called for a complete boycott of British goods; non-importation, non-exportation, and non-consumption

• The King and Parliament did not respond to the Declaration & Resolves because that would have recognized the Congress’ right as a legislative body

Effects: Complete boycott of British goods was instated, colonies united under shared grievances

</aside>

<aside> ⚔ Lexington & Concord (1775)

• First major conflicts of the Revolutionary War

• British redcoats were sent to nearby Lexington and Concord to seize gunpowder and arrest Sam Adams and John Hancock

• The battle began when the Minutemen (colonial troops) refused to disperse on Lexington Green; the British won and continued to Concord, where they were forced to retreat by American militias </aside>

<aside> 🪶 Second Continental Congress (May 1775)

• All 13 colonies were present; delegates were still not interested in independence and only wanted a redress of grievances

• The congress declared war on Britain and elected George Washington to lead the Continental Army, and drafted the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, which was a second set of appeals to the king for redress of American grievances

• Moderates wrote the Olive Branch Petition, a last-ditch effort to prevent a war; it pledged the colonies’ loyalty to the king and sought to restore peace, and asked the king to reconsider the Intolerable Acts

• King George declared the colonies in a state of rebellion and the war continued

Effects: War was recognized, Colonial forces were organized under Washington

</aside>

<aside> 📜 Declaration of Independence (1776)

• A committee was appointed to draft it at the Second Continental Congress

• Thomas Jefferson wrote the first draft; it was faced with much debate and many amendments, such as the removal of an anti-slavery clause

• 3 parts: Preamble (stated the rights of the colonists to break away), 27 grievances against the King (imposing taxes unfairly, eliminating trial by jury, military rule, etc), and the formal declaration of independence that officially broke ties with Britain

• Now, since the U.S. was an independent country, foreign aid from France could be received </aside>

<aside> ⚔ Battle of Trenton (1776) & Battle of Princeton (1777)

Battle of Trenton

• At this point, the American cause was unraveling

• Washington crossed the icy Delaware river to surprise British forces at Trenton, where he captured 1,000 Hessians

Battle of Princeton

• One week after the Battle of Trenton, Washington defeated a smaller force in Trenton, New Jersey

• The British were forced to pull back into New York

Effects: Both battles greatly improved morale and were stunning reversals for the Continental army

</aside>

<aside> ⚔ Battle of Saratoga (1777)

• Most important battle of the American Revolution

• Britain sought to capture NY and cut off New England; they were slowed down by Patriot forces, making it possible for the Continental Army to surprise and overwhelm the British

Effects: Saratoga became one of the US’s most decisive battles, and inspired French military aid

</aside>

<aside> 📜 Articles of Confederation (1777)

• Set up by the Second Continental Congress to create a federal government

• Gave Congress few powers other than those relating to the war effort; Congress could not conscript troops, tax, or regulate trade

• Because the Articles were weak, they were replaced by the Constitution in 1789 </aside>

<aside> ⚔ Battle of Yorktown (1781)

• Last major battle of the war

• The British forces were cornered in Chesapeake Bay; the French navy blockaded them at sea, and the Continental and French forces attacked them on land

• British General Cornwallis surrendered his entire force of 7,000 men

• The war continued for 1 more year (mostly in the South) but with little consequence </aside>

<aside> 📜 Treaty of Paris (1783)

• Britain formally recognized US Independence and set its boundaries

• Some concessions were put into place against the Americans: they could not persecute Loyalists and they had to pay back debts to the British (they did not do either of these things)

• America alone gained from the war; Britain lost the colonies, France went bankrupt, and Spain gained little </aside>

French & Indian War/Seven Years’ War (1754-1763)

• Most important of the colonial wars

Cause: conflict over the Ohio River Valley

• British settlers continued to move into the region and were increasingly opposed to French dominance there; the French needed to maintain the region to link Canada and the rest of the Americas

• The French saw the Iroquois trading with the British as a threat to French interests in the Ohio River Valley, and began to fortify the region by building forts

• Nearly all Native American tribes except the Iroquois allied with the French against the British

<aside> ⚔ Fort Duquesne (1754)

• Lieutenant Colonel George Washington was sent by the Virginia government to prevent the French from building a fort on the Ohio River

• He was defeated and forced to surrender, but was allowed to leave with his army intact

• In effect, Washington triggered the French & Indian War </aside>

Albany Congress (1754)

• Leaders from all the colonies met in Albany to discuss Native American threats and to ask for an alliance with the Iroquois, who refused to commit to the British

• Long-range purpose: to increase colonial unity and organize a strong defense against France

<aside> 🪶 Albany Plan for Union

• Plan proposed by Benjamin Franklin for colonial homerule that dealt with defense and Native American affairs

• The Albany delagates adopted the plan, but the individual colonies rejected it as they believed not enough autonomy was given to the colonies

• Britain also rejected it as it gave too much independence to the colonies </aside>

British-Colonial Tensions during the French & Indian War

• Some colonists were impressed into military service, supplies for British troops were confiscated, and British troops were quartered in colonial homes without compensation

• William Pitt, the British PM, reversed these injustices ****in 1758 by compensating the colonists for property they had lost and implementing the policy that soldiers would be enlisted by the colonists themselves

Treaty of Paris (1763)

• Signed after British and colonial forces took Quebec from the French in the Battle of Quebec, ending the French & Indian War

• In effect, France was removed from North America completely

• France gave their unsettled lands west of the Mississippi River to Spain as compensation for Spanish support in the war

Significance of the French & Indian War

1. Great Britain emerged as the dominant power in North America and the leading naval power in the world

2. Permanently altered the balance of power in North America between the British, French, & Native Americans

   • Native Americans were now at the mercy of British settlers who wanted to move westward without fear of the French

   • By 1800, many eastern woodlands Native Americans were removed or killed

3. The enormous war debt resulted in new imperial tax policies that eventually led to the American Revolution

British-Colonial Tensions After the French & Indian War

• The colonies emerged from the war with increased confidence in their military strength; colonial military leaders were also angry that few American officers were promoted in the British military

• The British leaders believed the Americans had performed poorly in the war, and were upset that American shippers traded with Spain and the French West Indies during the war

• The legitimacy of British rule in local colonial affairs came into question; colonists expected to return to salutary neglect after the war

• Westward expansion increased significantly after the war; most threats of the French, Spanish, and Natives had been removed, and settlers were no longer as dependent on British protection

<aside> ⚔ Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763)

• Native Americans in the Ohio Valley were angry with British treatment during the last years of the French & Indian War

• Chief Pontiac of the Ottowa refused to surrender his lands to the British and led a Native American alliance against settlers in the Ohio River and Great Lakes region

• It took the British 18 months to bring the rebellion under control; they used a form of biowarfare by handing out blankets infected with smallpox to the Native Americans </aside>

Proclamation of 1763

• In response to Pontiac’s Rebellion, King George III signed an edict:

  • Created royal colonies in all land newly acquired from the French

  • Prohibited colonists from moving west of the Appalachians in order to settle land disputes with Native Americans

• Colonists were infuriated and ignored the proclamation, continuing to move and settle westward

Road to the American Revolution

Colonies Prior to the Revolution

• In the 18th century, a large percentage of American colonists were proud to belong to the British Empire; they still considered themselves British citizens and had the highest standard of living in the world

• Salutary neglect (1713-1763) reduced British intervention in colonial affairs; the colonies were left to create and equip their own militias for protection from Native Americans, and thus developed self-reliance and effective organization

British Mercantilism

Positive Impacts

• Until 1763, the Navigation Laws did not adversely impact the colonial economy

• Colonists had the same rights as Englishmen and opportunities for self-government

• The colonies had British military protection free of charge

• Colonies greatly profited from manufacturing and trading

Negative Impacts

• Colonial manufacturing was hindered by British policies

• Southern Colonies suffered as export prices dropped due to enumerated articles (goods that could only be exported to Britain)

• New England resented British policies that favored the Southern Colonies

• Writs of Assistance: Search warrants by British customs officers used to harass colonial shipping, intended to reduce colonial smuggling

Boston lawyer James Otis demanded that Parliament repeal the acts; he was unsuccessful, but he gained press attention in the colonies and famously wrote “no taxation without representation”

End of Salutary Neglect (1763)

• 1763 marked a new era in relations between the British and the colonies, as the British PM George Greenville sought to enforce the Navigation Acts

• Americans were angry with the increased authority of the admirality courts & could now try smugglers, tax evaders, ship owners, and other accused of violating commercial restrictions

  • There was no trial by jury; courts were located far north in Nova Scotia

Taxation of the Colonies

<aside> 🪙 Britain’s debt from the French & Indian War was enormous, and half of it was due to protecting the colonies

• Britain thought the colonists should pay a portion of the debt, and so they imposed many taxes on the colonies

• These taxes led to intense protest in the colonies, which often led to them being eventually repealed </aside>

Currency Act (1764)

• Britain restricted the colonial printing of paper money

• They wanted colonists to pay back debts and taxes with hard currency (gold and silver)

• Most of the gold and silver in the colonies had already flowed into England because the colonies had been importing many goods from them for years; the lack of gold meant a lack of available hard currency

Sugar Act (1764)

• 1st act passed specifically to raise revenue for the crown; aimed to collect duties that the colonies had not paid for many years

• Reduced taxes on molasses but taxed all molasses, not just molasses from the French West Indies

• Not enforced effectively; colonial protest led to it being repealed, causing the colonists to see the power of protest

Quartering Act (1765)

• Certain colonies were required to provide food and lodging for British troops

• This had also occurred during the French & Indian War

Three Great Crises

There were 3 acts implemented by the British imperial government on the colonists that led to the American Revolution: the Stamp Act, the Townshend Acts, and the Tea Act Crisis.

Stamp Act (1765)

• May have been the single most important event leading to the American Revolution

• Put in place to raise revenue to support new British military forces in the colonies

• Taxed all published materials and legal documents; allowed for trying offenders in admirality courts where juries were not allowed

• British lawmakers saw the Stamp Act as reasonable; it only required the colonists to pay their fair share for defense, and a similar act had been in effect in Britain for many years

Virginia Resolves

• Led by Patrick Henry

• Virginia leaders believed the Stamp Act attacked colonials’ rights as Englishmen

• Henry claimed that only Virginia had the right to tax its own people, and 5 of his resolutions were adopted by the House of Burgesses, causing 8 other colonies to adopt similar legislation

<aside> 🏛 Colonial Politics

• Colonists distinguished between “legislation” and “taxation”

• Many believed taxation was the exclusive right of local representative governments

• Greenville (Prime Minister) stated that the colonies had “virtual representation” in Parliament because Parliament members represented the whole British empire; the colonists dismissed this idea </aside>

Stamp Act Congress (1765)

• Brought together 27 delegates from 9 colonies; Massachusetts had invited colonies who had adopted the Virginia Resolves to meet

• The congress drew up a statement of their rights and grievances; they demanded that the king and Parliament rescind the Stamp Act (this went largely ignored in England)

• Significance: the Stamp Act Congress brought together representatives from various colonies and set a precedent for future resistance to British rule

• The congress also enacted non-importation agreements against British goods

Sons of Liberty

• Led by Samuel Adams; they violently enforced nonimportation agreements and attacked British law enforcers, often tarring and feathering them

• They vandalized and burglarized the houses of pro- British officials, and forced Stamp Act agents to resign

Stamp Act Repealed (1766)

• Lord Rockingham, the new British PM, saw that the Stamp Act was a possible cause of civil crisis and encouraged British merchants to write to Parliament to rescind the tax

• The Stamp Act rebellion proved Parliament could be persuaded to yield to American boycotts and mob action

<aside> ⚖ Declaratory Act

• Face-saving measure passed by the British Parliament after repealing the Stamp Act

• Claimed that Britain had the right to tax the colonies in any way in the future </aside>

Townshend Acts (1767)

• Charles Townshend (new British PM) put these acts into place in order to punish the colonies for the Stamp Act uprising

• A small import duty was placed on glass, white lead, paper, paint, silk, and tea

• Revenue from the taxes would pay the salaries of royal judges and governors working in America

Colonial Reaction

• Colonies interpreted the act as an inappropriate tax to raise revenue and pay royal salaries; they especially hated the tax on tea

• John Dickinson wrote Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania that denied Britain’s right to levy taxes for the purpose of revenue; the pamphlet promoted the Massachusetts Circular Letter

Massachusetts Circular Letter (1768)

• The Massachusetts Legislature, urged by Sam Adams and James Otis, supported Dickinson’s arument and asked other colonies to pass petitions calling for Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts

• In response, Britain sent troops to Boston and threatened to dissolve Massachusetts’ legislature if the letter was not retracted

• Several colonial legislatures were dissolved as they supported Massachusetts

Boston “Massacre” (1770)

• American resistance was aroused as peaceful British troops arrived in Boston

• On March 5, 1770, colonists harassed British soldiers until they fired into a crowd, killing or wounding 11 civilians

• Crispus Attucks, a mixed-race merchant sailor, was the “first to die in the revolution”

• Word of the “massacre” spread throughout the colonists and was used to inflame anti-British sentiments

Townshend Acts Repealed (1770)

• Lord North bowed to pressure from the colonies and got Parliament to repeal the acts in 1770, but maintained a small tax on tea

• Half the troops in Boston were removed

• Relations improved after the Acts were repealed until 1773

Committees of Correspondence

• Some colonial discontent continued as the British redoubled their effots to enforce the Navigation Laws

• Sam Adams used propaganda to whip up colonial resentment and organized local committees of correspondence in Massachusetts to spread propaganda and information by sending letters to keep up opposition against the British

• Intercolonial committees emerged, and evolved directly into the first American congresses in 1774 and 1775

Tea Act Crisis (1773)

• The British government granted the British East India Company a monopoly on the American tea trade to try to prevent it from going bankrupt

• The price of tea would be lower than existing prices, even with the tax

• Americans saw the Tea Act as an attempt to trick them into accepting the tax through cheaper tea

Boston Tea Party (1773)

• December 16, 1773 - the Sons of Liberty dressed as Native Americans boarded 3 ships, smashed 342 chests of tea open, and dumped them into the harbor

Intolerable Acts/Coercive Acts (1774)

• Parliament passed the Coercive Acts to punish Boston for the Boston Tea Party:

  • Boston harbor was closed until damages were paid and order was restored

  • Massachusetts charter was revoked and town meetings were forbidden

  • British officials accused of crimes could be tried in England instead of the colonies, so their sentences would be lighter

  • Quartering Act was reinstated in Boston

First Continental Congress (1774)

• In response to the Intolerable Acts, the committees of correspondence urged colonists to act quickly; Bostonians agreed to end all trade with Britain and invited other colonies to join the resistance

• 12 of 13 colonies were present at the Congress; Georgia did not send delegates because they were currently being aided by British troops in conflicts with the Creek natives

• Suffolk Resolves:

  • Denounced the Intolerable Acts

  • Urged the colonies to organize a militia for self-defense purposes

  • Called on colonies to suspend all trade with the rest of Britain

  • Urged citizens not to pay taxes

• Declarations & Resolves:

  • Petitioned for redress of colonial grievances

  • Gave colonists the legal right to assemble in order to seek address

  • The document contained the same structure as the Declaration of Independence

• The Association (most significant act of the Congress)

  • Called for a complete boycott of British goods; non-importation, non-exportation, and non-consumption

• Still, Congress restated allegiance to the King; independence was not on the table, and the colonists just wanted their grievances to be redressed

• The King and Parliament did not respond to the Declaration & Resolves because that would have recognized the Congress’ right as a legislative body

Early Revolution

Lexington & Concord (1775)

• “The shot heard round the world”; the first true conflict of the American Revolution

• Parliament ordered General Gage, the new governor of Massachusetts, to arrest leaders of the rebellion and prepare for military action

• 700 British redcoats were sent in secret to nearby Lexington and Concord to seize gunpowder and arrest Sam Adams and John Hancock

• The battle began when the Minutemen (colonial troops) refused to disperse on Lexington Green; shots were fired, but it is unknown who fired first

• 8 Americans were killed and 10 were wounded; the British continued to Concord, where they were forced to retreat by American militias

• The Minutemen then encamped outside Boston, where the redcoats had retreated, and laid siege to it

American Strengths & Weaknesses

Strengths

• Outstanding military and diplomatic leadership

• Economic aid from France at the outset of the war and later military aid proved decisive

• Defensive tactics worked to their advantage

• Agriculturally self-sustaining

• Colonials were highly competent marksmen

• Moral advantage, as the colonists believed they were fighting for a just cause

Weaknesses

• Badly organized and lacked unity from the beginning; each colony regarded itself as sovereign

• Plagued by economic difficulties, as little metal money existed and paper money became worthless due to inflation

• Military supplies were inadequate and militiamen were highly unreliable

• Morale was undermined by American profiteers

• Very few Americans truly committed themselves to the cause

British Strengths & Weaknesses

Strengths

• Higher population than the colonies: 7.5 million compared to 2.5 million

• Superior monetary advantage and the best navy in the world

• Many slaves joined British forces after the British promised freedom if they fought on their side

• Many Native Americans also sided with Britain and attacked Americans along the frontier

• Britain’s army was larger and better-trained, and supplemented by Loyalists

Weaknesses

• An enormous distance separated England from the colonies; communication was inefficient for immediate action

• America was too large for Britain’s army to effecively occupy it, and the population was too dispersed

• British generals in America were often poor leaders; the military had not sent their best as they believed defeating the colonies would not be a challenge

• Many British soldiers did not want to kill Americans, who they saw as their countrymen

The American Revolution, 1775-1783

Second Continental Congress (May 1775)

• All 13 colonies were present; delegates were still not interested in independence and only wanted a redress of grievances

Outcomes:

• The congress declared war on Britain and elected George Washington to lead the Continental Army

• Jefferson and Dickinson drafted the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, which was a second set of appeals to the king for redress of American grievances; it outlined a plan to raise money and create an army and navy

• Olive Branch Petition: a last-ditch effort by moderates (Dickinson) to prevent a war; it pledged the colonies’ loyalty to the king and sought to restore peace, and asked the king to reconsider the Intolerable Acts

• King George still refused to recognize the congress and the war continued

Early Battles

Ticonderoga and Crown Point (May 1775)

• Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain Boys of Vermont, along with Benedict Arnold of Connecticut, surprised and captured British garrisons in upstate New York; they seized British weapons, including cannons

• The rebels eventually forced the British to abandon New England

Bunker Hill (June 1775)

• Began when colonial forces seized Breed’s Hill (the battle is misnamed) and commanded a strong position overlooking Boston

• The British attempted to take the hill twice; the first attempt failed, but by the second attempt the colonials had run out of ammunition and were forced to retreat

• The Americans viewed this battle as a victory due to heavy British losses; it was the bloodiest battle of the American Revolution

• The British army left Boston soon after this battle

Hessians

After Bunker Hill, King George proclaimed the colonies were in rebellion and hired 18,000 Hessians (German mercenaries) to support British forces. Americans were outraged that the King brought other countries into the war.

Shift to Independence

Most Americans did not desire independence in early 1776 as they were still proud English subjects.

• They wanted better treatment within the empire

• Most sought to have their natural rights respected by the mother country, as outlined by John Locke

• Most believed that a social contract and the general will of the people, outlined by Jean-Jaques Rousseau, guaranteed that colonials should be free from the perceived tyrannical rule of the British Empire

Reasons for the Shift in Colonial Loyalty

1. Britain’s hiring of the Hessians outraged the colonies

2. The burning of New England towns by the British enraged many colonials

3. The governor of Virginia promised freedom to slaves who would fight for Britain, a very unpopular decree especially among slave owners

Thomas Paine’s Common Sense

Common Sense was an instant bestseller and served as effective propaganda in favor of independence

Main Ideas:

• Britain’s colonial policies were inconsistent; independence was the only course

• Nowhere in the physical universe did a smaller heavenly body control a larger one, so why should a tiny island govern a much larger country

• Paine’s pamphlet persuaded Congress to go all in for independence; they also could not hope for aid from France unless they officially declared their independence

• Common Sense also changed many colonists’ minds about independence

Proposal of Independence

In June 1776, Richard Henry Lee proposed independence at the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia.

• Congress appointed a Committee on Independence to prepare an appropriate statement; Thomas Jefferson was chosen to write a draft of the declaration

• In Congress, there was much debate over the content of the declaration, especially Jefferson’s anti-slavery clause which was removed after opposition from southerners

• The Declaration was not sent to England; it was meant to inform the colonial citizens and France of why they were fighting Britain

The Declaration of Independence

3 major parts:

1. Preamble: heavily influenced by John Locke. Stated the rights of the colonists to break away if natural rights were violated and stated that “all men are created equal”

2. List of the colonies’ 27 grievances: these included imposing taxes without colonial consent, eliminating trial by jury, military dictatorship, maintaining a standing army in peacetime, cutting off trade, burning towns, hiring mercenaries, and inciting Native American violence

3. Formal declaration of independence: officially broke ties with Britain and made the United States officially an independent country. As a result, foreign aid could now be received from France and other countries.

Patriots vs Loyalists

Patriots

• American rebels who fought both British soldiers and Loyalists

• They constituted a minority movement, but were better than Loyalists at gaining support from colonists neutral about the war

Loyalists (Tories)

• They fought for a return to colonial rule and were loyal to the king

• They were generally conservative, educated, and wealthy, and mostly of the older generation

• Included royal officers and other beneficiaries of the crown, along with the Anglican clergy and a large portion of their followers

• They were influential in the Middle Colonies and parts of the Southern Colonies, less so in New England

• About 80,000 Loyalists fled the colonies during and after the war or fought for the British; their estates were confiscated and sold by the Patriots to fund the war effort

The American Revolution, 1776-1777

Context:

During this time, Britain changed its focus to the mid-Atlantic states (Middle Colonies) after abandoning New England in the wake of losses and challenges in the previous years of the war

By late 1776, the revolutionary cause was unraveling; many soldiers had deserted or were about to finish their terms of service

Battle of Trenton (1776)

• Washington crossed the Delaware River from Pennsylvania to New Jersey near Trenton (very dangerous crossing; only a portion of his forces made it to the other side)

• At Trenton, the Patriot forces surprised and captured about 1,000 Hessians

• The battle was a stunning reversal for Washington’s army and greatly improved morale

Battle of Princeton (1777)

• One week after Trenton, Washington defeated a smaller British Force in Trenton, New Jersey (again)

• This forced the British to pull back into New York

Effects: Trenton and Princeton were successful gambles by Washington that revived the faltering Continental Army

Battle of Saratoga (1777)

Most important battle of the American Revolution for the Patriots

• Britain sought to capture New York and sever New England from the US

• Benedict Arnold saved New England by slowing down the British invasion of New York, which made it possible for the Continental Army to surprise and overwhelm the British forces

• Arnold would later betray the US by attempting to hand over control of the Hudson River to the British

Effects:

• British General Burgoyne surrendered his entire command to American General Horatio Gates

• Saratoga inspired French aid of troops and supplies, which ultimately ensured American victory

• Spain and the Netherlands enter the war in 1779, causing Britain to face a world war

• Saratoga revived the faltering colonial cause

Valley Forge (1777-1778)

• A fort in Pennsylvania where Washington’s forces spent the winter of 1777-1778

• Brutal conditions; many men died due to starvation, cold, and disease

• Congress could not send the forces aid after Washington requested it because they had no funds; the French aided the forces instead

Articles of Confederation (1777)

• Set up by the Second Continental Congress to create a permanent and constitutional government; did not go into effect until 1781

• First constitution in U.S. history; lasted until 1789 when the Constitution went into effect

• Congress had the power to conduct war, handle foreign relations, and borrow money; in effect, all their powers were related to the war effort and nothing else

• The Articles were very weak; the federal government had no power to regulate trade, conscript troops or levy taxes

The Franco-American Alliance

Causes:

• France sought to exact revenge on Britain for its loss in the French & Indian War

• France and Britain were long-term rivals and constantly at war in Europe

• The French had been impressed by the American victory at Saratoga and now saw their victory as possible

• Marquis de Lafayatte, Benjamin Franklin, and Silas Deane were influential in convincing the French government to send military supplies to the Americas

Effects:

• France supplied the Americas in secret at first; they initially worried that open aid to America might provoke British attacks on French interests

• France promised to recognize America’s independence

• Both sides agreed to wage war until the U.S. won its freedom or until both sides agreed to terms with Britain

• The Revolution turned into a world war that stretched British resources; Spain and the Netherlands entered the war, and there were clashes in Europe, North America, South America, the Caribbean, and Asia

Land & Sea Frontiers

• Native American allies of the British attacked the U.S.’s western frontier; Thayendanegea, the leader of the Iroquois six nations, led raids into western Pennsylvania and New York and was forced to sign the Treaty of Ft. Stanwix, making the Iroquois lose most of their land

• The US seized the Illinois country from the British and took over several British ports along the Ohio River, which helped reduce Native American involvement in the region

• The American Navy: Chief contribution was destroying British merchant shipping and carrying the war into the waters around the British Isles; U.S. privateers were more effective in disrupting British strategy

• John Paul Jones was the most famous U.S. naval leader

British Strategy in 1778

The British changed their strategy once again to focus on the former southern colonies, where they believed there was a strong Loyalist presence

• Savannah, Georgia was captured in late 1778 - early 1779

• Charleston, South Carolina fell in 1780; this was a devastating loss for the Americans

• Nathaniel Greene succeeded in clearing Georgia and South Carolina of most British troops

• Lord Cornwallis was forced to abandon Britain’s southern strategy and fell back to Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown

Battle of Yorktown (1781)

Last major battle of the Revolutionary War

• French Admiral de Grasse blockaded the Chesapeake Bay, making it impossible for British ships to enter

• Accompanied by Rochambeau’s French army, Washington attacked the British on land while de Grasse blockaded them by sea

• Cornwallis surrendered his entire force of 7,000 men

• The war continued on for one more year, especially in the South, but with little consequence

Peace at Paris

Causes:

• Britain was ready to come to terms after losses in India, the Caribbean, and the Mediterranean as well as in North America

• A new Whig ministry, which was more sympathetic to the American cause, replaced the Tory regime

• Britain was eager to separate the U.S. from the Franco-American alliance

Treaty of Paris (1783)

1. Britain formally recognized U.S. independence

2. Granted the U.S. huge boundaries stretching to the Mississippi River in the west, the Great Lakes in the north, and Spanish Florida in the south

3. American Concessions:

   • Loyalists could not be further persecuted, and their property was to be restored

   • American states were bound to pay back British creditors for pre-Revolutionary debts

   • The US did not comply with many of these, and later this became a partial cause of the War of 1812

America alone gained from the war; Britain lost colonies and other territories, France became bankrupt, and Spain gained little (they were allowed to retain most of Spanish Florida)

American Society During the War

• Over 250,000 American soldiers fought in the war; 10% who fought died, the largest percentage of any American war

War Economy: all of society became involved in the war

• State and national governments were created

• Men with military experience volunteered for positions in the army

• Some merchants loaned money to the army and to Congress; a few made fortunes from wartime contracts

• Most of the fighting was done by the poorest Americans; young city laborers, farm boys, indentured servants, and sometimes slaves

• African Americans fought on both sides, with 5,000 in the Continental Army and nearly 30,000 in the British army. Slaves joined the British because they were promised freedom if the British won; Washington offered the same conditions if they joined the Continental Army, but much later and to little effect

• Native Americans also fought with the British since they hoped to keep the American settlers out of their territories

Women in the War

1. Managed farm businesses while men served in the army, or traveled with the army as cooks and nurses

2. Some women became more politically active and expressed their thoughts freely

   • Mercy Otis Warren: wrote satirical plays about British rule in the 1760s and 1770s that helped turned public opinion against the mother country

   • Abigail Adams: privately implored her husband John to “remember the ladies” when creating a new government (he did not)

3. In the 1760s and 1770s, women participated in anti-British riots and formed the Daughters of Liberty

4. A few participated in the war itself; Deborah Sampson dressed as a man and fought in the army until she was wounded, and Mary Ludwig Hays took over loading her husband’s cannon after he collapsed

5. Republican motherhood emerged after the war; idea that women should teach children the values of the new republic, thereby giving women a more active role in shaping the nation’s political life

Reasons for American Victory

Diplomatic

Political

Military