A&P final review

1. Anatomy vs. Physiology

• Anatomy: Study of body structure (e.g., bones, muscles).

• Physiology: Study of body function (e.g., how the heart pumps blood).

2. Subdivisions of Anatomy

• Gross Anatomy: Large structures, visible to the naked eye.
  

  • Surface anatomy: External features

  • Regional anatomy: Specific body regions

  • Systemic anatomy: Body systems

• Microscopic Anatomy:

  • Histology: Tissues

  • Cytology: Cells

• Developmental Anatomy: From fertilization to adulthood (includes embryology)

3. Principle of Complementarity

• Structure and function are closely related.

• Example: Bones are hard (structure) to support weight (function).

4. Levels of Structural Organization

1. Chemical (atoms, molecules)

2. Cellular

3. Tissue

4. Organ

5. Organ system

6. Organismal

5. 8 Requirements of Life

1. Maintaining boundaries – skin

2. Movement – muscles, blood flow

3. Responsiveness – withdrawal reflex

4. Digestion – breakdown of food

5. Metabolism – all chemical reactions

6. Excretion – urine, CO2

7. Reproduction – cellular and organismal

8. Growth – increase in size or cell number

6. Multicellularity

• Humans are made of trillions of cells.

• Cells specialize (e.g., neurons, muscle cells), rely on organ systems to function cooperatively.

7. 11 Organ Systems & Structure

1. Integumentary – skin, hair, nails

2. Skeletal – bones, joints

3. Muscular – skeletal muscles

4. Nervous – brain, spinal cord, nerves

5. Endocrine – glands (pituitary, thyroid, etc.)

6. Cardiovascular – heart, blood vessels

7. Lymphatic/Immune – lymph nodes, spleen

8. Respiratory – lungs, trachea

9. Digestive – stomach, intestines

10. Urinary – kidneys, bladder

11. Reproductive – ovaries/testes, uterus/penis

8. 5 Survival Needs

1. Nutrients

2. Oxygen

3. Water

4. Normal body temperature

5. Atmospheric pressure

9. Homeostasis

• Stable internal environment

• Example: body temp, blood sugar

Homeostatic Control Components:

1. Receptor – detects change

2. Control center – processes info (brain)

3. Effector – responds to change (muscle/gland)

Feedback Types:

• Negative Feedback – reverses change (e.g., temperature regulation)

• Positive Feedback – amplifies change (e.g., childbirth)

10. Anatomical Position

• Body upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward, feet slightly apart

11. Directional Terms

• Superior/Inferior – above/below

• Anterior/Posterior – front/back

• Medial/Lateral – toward/away from midline

• Proximal/Distal – closer/farther from point of attachment

• Superficial/Deep – toward/away from surface

12. Major Body Divisions

• Axial: head, neck, trunk

• Appendicular: limbs

13. Body Planes

• Sagittal: left/right (mid vs. para)

• Frontal (coronal): front/back

• Transverse: top/bottom

14. Body Cavities

• Dorsal:

  • Cranial: brain

  • Vertebral: spinal cord

• Ventral:

  • Thoracic: heart, lungs

  • Abdominopelvic:

    • Abdominal: stomach, intestines

    • Pelvic: bladder, reproductive organs

15. Serous Membranes (Ventral Cavity)

• Function: reduce friction

• Components:

  • Parietal serosa: lines cavity wall

  • Visceral serosa: covers organs

  • Example: pericardium (heart), pleura (lungs), peritoneum (abdomen)

16. Abdominopelvic Quadrants

• RUQ: liver, gallbladder

• LUQ: stomach, spleen

• RLQ: appendix, right ovary

• LLQ: left ovary, sigmoid colon

9 Regions (Top to Bottom, L–R):

1. R/L Hypochondriac | Epigastric

2. R/L Lumbar | Umbilical

3. R/L Iliac (Inguinal) | Hypogastric

1. Energy Basics

• Energy: Capacity to do work or cause change.

• Forms:

  • Kinetic – energy in motion

  • Potential – stored energy

  • Chemical – stored in bonds (ATP)

  • Electrical, mechanical, radiant, thermal

2. Elements in the Human Body

• 4 elements making up 96%:
  Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen (OCHN)

• Other common elements:
  

  • Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S), Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe), Iodine (I)

3. Isotopes

• Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

• Same atomic number, different mass.

4. Molecules vs. Compounds

• Molecule: 2+ atoms bonded (O₂, H₂)

• Compound: 2+ different atoms bonded (H₂O, CO₂)

• All compounds are molecules, but not all molecules are compounds.

5. Types of Mixtures

1. Solutions – solute particles very small, don’t settle (e.g., saltwater)

2. Colloids – larger particles, don’t settle (e.g., cytosol)

3. Suspensions – large particles, settle over time (e.g., blood)

6. Solute vs. Solvent

• Solute: Dissolved substance

• Solvent: The dissolving medium (in the body, usually water)

7. Mixtures vs. Compounds

• Mixtures can be physically separated; compounds must be chemically separated.

8. Octet Rule & Valence Electrons

• Atoms want 8 electrons in outer shell.

• Valence electrons: Electrons in outer shell—important for bonding.

9. Chemical Bonds

1. Ionic – transfer of electrons (NaCl)

2. Covalent – sharing electrons (H₂O)

3. Hydrogen – weak attraction between polar molecules (DNA strands)

10. Chemical Reactions

1. Synthesis (A + B → AB) – anabolic

2. Decomposition (AB → A + B) – catabolic

3. Exchange (AB + C → AC + B)

11. Redox Reactions

• Oxidation: loss of electrons

• Reduction: gain of electrons

12. Exergonic vs. Endergonic

• Exergonic: release energy (e.g., cellular respiration)

• Endergonic: require energy (e.g., protein synthesis)

13. Reaction Rate Influencers

• Temperature (higher = faster)

• Concentration

• Particle size

• Catalysts (enzymes)

Catalysts: Speed up reactions by lowering activation energy. In the body, these are enzymes.

14. Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds

• Inorganic: no carbon (exceptions: CO₂, HCO₃⁻)

  • Water, salts, acids, bases

• Organic: contain carbon

  • Carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

15. Water’s Unique Properties

• High heat capacity & vaporization

• Polar molecule

• Universal solvent

• Reactant in hydrolysis

• Cushions organs

16. Acids, Bases, and pH

• Acid: releases H⁺

• Base: releases OH⁻

• pH scale: 0–14
  

  • Acid: < 7

  • Neutral: 7

  • Base: > 7

• Neutralization Reaction: Acid + Base → Salt + Water

• Buffer: Resists pH changes (e.g., bicarbonate buffer system)

17. Macromolecules (Organic Compounds)

A. Carbohydrates

• Monomer: monosaccharides (glucose)

• Polymer: polysaccharides (glycogen)

• Classes:
  

  1. Monosaccharides – glucose, fructose

  2. Disaccharides – sucrose, lactose

  3. Polysaccharides – glycogen, starch

B. Lipids

• All hydrophobic

• Types:
  

  1. Triglycerides (fats/oils)

  2. Phospholipids

  3. Steroids (cholesterol)

  4. Eicosanoids (prostaglandins)

• Triglyceride = 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids

  1. Saturated: no double bonds (solid fats)

  2. Unsaturated: double bonds (oils)

• Phospholipids: glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate

  1. Head = hydrophilic

  2. Tail = hydrophobic

C. Proteins

• Monomer: amino acids (20 types)

• Differ by R group

• Peptide bond: covalent bond between amino acids

• Functions (6):
  

  1. Structural (keratin)

  2. Enzymatic (lactase)

  3. Transport (hemoglobin)

  4. Contractile (actin/myosin)

  5. Defensive (antibodies)

  6. Signaling (hormones)

D. Nucleic Acids

• DNA & RNA

• Monomer: nucleotide (sugar + phosphate + nitrogen base)

• Bases: A, T, C, G (U in RNA)

18. Dehydration Synthesis & Hydrolysis

• Dehydration synthesis: joins monomers by removing water

• Hydrolysis: breaks polymers by adding water

19. Monomers vs. Polymers

• Monomer: single building block (e.g., glucose)

• Polymer: chain of monomers (e.g., starch, protein)

1. 4 Levels of Protein Structure

1. Primary – sequence of amino acids

2. Secondary – folding into alpha helices or beta sheets (via hydrogen bonds)

3. Tertiary – 3D shape from R-group interactions

4. Quaternary – 2+ polypeptide chains working together (e.g., hemoglobin)

2. Protein Shapes (2 Categories)

• Fibrous (structural)
  

  • Long, strand-like, stable, insoluble

  • Function: support, strength

  • Examples: collagen, keratin, elastin

• Globular (functional)
  

  • Compact, spherical, soluble

  • Function: enzymes, hormones, transport

  • Examples: hemoglobin, antibodies, insulin

3. Protein Denaturation

• Definition: Loss of a protein’s shape and function due to disruption of bonds (especially hydrogen bonds).

• Causes: heat, pH changes, chemicals

• Result: irreversible in most cases (e.g., frying an egg)

4. Nucleic Acids: 2 Major Classes

1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
   

   • Stores genetic info

   • Double-stranded helix

   • Sugar: deoxyribose

   • Bases: A, T, C, G

   • Base pairing: A–T, C–G

3. RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
   

   • Involved in protein synthesis

   • Single-stranded

   • Sugar: ribose

   • Bases: A, U, C, G

   • Base pairing: A–U, C–G

5. Nitrogen Base Types

• Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G) – larger, double-ring

• Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T in DNA), Uracil (U in RNA) – smaller, single-ring

6. Complementary Base Pairing

• DNA:
  A – T
  C – G

• RNA:
  A – U
  C – G

7. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

• Structure: Adenine + ribose + 3 phosphate groups

• Function: Primary energy currency of the cell

• Why it’s needed: Powers nearly all cellular work (muscle contraction, active transport, biosynthesis)

• Energy release: When the terminal phosphate bond is broken (ATP → ADP + Pi + energy)

1. Cell Theory

• All living things are made of cells.

• Cells are the basic unit of structure and function.

• All cells come from preexisting cells.

2. 3 Basic Parts of a Human Cell

1. Plasma membrane

2. Cytoplasm (cytosol + organelles)

3. Nucleus

3. Fluid Compartments

• ICF (Intracellular fluid): Inside the cell

• ECF (Extracellular fluid): Outside the cell

• ECM (Extracellular matrix): Protein network that supports and binds cells

4. Plasma Membrane Structure

• Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

• Hydrophilic heads (face water); hydrophobic tails (face inward)

5. Membrane Proteins

• Integral proteins: embedded; span membrane (e.g., channels)

• Peripheral proteins: attached to membrane surface

Functions:

• Transport

• Receptors

• Enzymes

• Cell-cell recognition

• Attachment to cytoskeleton/ECM

• Intercellular joining

6. Glycocalyx

• Sticky, sugary coat on cell surface

• Function: cell recognition, protection, adhesion

7. Cell Junctions

1. Tight junctions: prevent leakage (intestines)

2. Desmosomes: anchoring (skin)

3. Gap junctions: communication (heart)

8. Membrane Transport

A. Passive Transport (no energy)

• Diffusion

  • Simple

  • Facilitated (channels/carriers)

• Osmosis: water diffusion

• Filtration

B. Active Transport (requires ATP)

• Primary Active Transport: ATP used directly (Na+/K+ pump)

• Secondary Active Transport: energy from another gradient

Vesicular transport:

• Endocytosis: into cell
  

  • Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated

• Exocytosis: out of cell

9. Water Movement Pressures

• Hydrostatic pressure: pushes water out

• Osmotic pressure: pulls water in

10. Tonicity

• Effect of a solution on cell volume

• Hypotonic: water in → cell swells

• Hypertonic: water out → cell shrinks

• Isotonic: no net change

11. Cytoplasm

• Cytosol: fluid

• Inclusions: storage

• Organelles: perform cellular tasks

12. Organelles

Membranous:

• Nucleus

• ER (Rough: protein synthesis; Smooth: lipid metabolism)

• Golgi: modifies/sorts proteins/lipids

• Lysosomes: digestion

• Peroxisomes: detox

• Mitochondria: ATP production

Non-membranous:

• Ribosomes: protein synthesis

• Cytoskeleton

• Centrioles

13. Golgi Transport (3 Steps)

1. Proteins/lipids arrive in vesicles

2. Modified/sorted in Golgi

3. Packaged and sent to destination

3 Destinations:

1. Exocytosis

2. Plasma membrane

3. Lysosomes

14. Endomembrane System

• Organelles working together (nucleus, ER, Golgi, vesicles, lysosomes)

• Function: synthesis, packaging, transport of materials

15. Cytoskeleton

• Structure: intracellular protein network

• 3 Proteins:
  

  1. Microfilaments: actin; cell shape, movement

  2. Intermediate filaments: strength/stability

  3. Microtubules: tubulin; cell shape, organelle movement

Motor proteins: Move organelles along cytoskeleton using ATP

16. Cell Surface Extensions

• Cilia: move substances across surface (respiratory tract)

• Flagella: propel cells (only sperm)

• Microvilli: increase surface area (intestines)

17. Nucleus

• Control center of the cell

• Most cells = 1 nucleus
  

  • Multinucleate: skeletal muscle

  • Anucleate: red blood cells

3 Structures:

1. Nuclear envelope: membrane with pores

2. Nucleolus: makes ribosomes

3. Chromatin: DNA + proteins

Chromosomes: Condensed chromatin during cell division

18. Cell Cycle

• Purpose: Growth, repair, reproduction

2 Major Phases:

1. Interphase (cell grows and prepares to divide)
   

   • G₁: Growth

   • S: DNA replication

   • G₂: Prep for mitosis

3. Mitotic (M) Phase (division)
   

   • Mitosis (PMAT)

   • Cytokinesis

19. DNA Replication (S Phase)

• DNA unwinds

• Each strand serves as template

• Complementary bases added (A-T, C-G)

• Result: 2 identical DNA molecules

1. DNA Replication: Key Steps & Molecules

Occurs in S phase of interphase

Steps:

1. Unwinding: DNA helicase unwinds the double helix

2. Separation: hydrogen bonds between bases break, creating replication forks

3. Priming: RNA primase lays down a primer

4. Elongation: DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to the exposed strands

5. Sealing: DNA ligase joins fragments (especially on lagging strand)

Result: Two identical DNA molecules

2. Semiconservative Replication

• Each new DNA molecule contains:
  

  • 1 original (parental) strand

  • 1 newly synthesized strand

• Helps preserve genetic accuracy

3. Cell Division Regulation: “Go” and “Stop” Signals

• Go signals:
  

  • Critical surface-to-volume ratio (cell too large)

  • Certain chemicals (e.g., growth factors, hormones)

• Stop signals:
  

  • Lack of space or nutrients

  • Contact inhibition: cells stop dividing when they touch neighbors

4. Contact Inhibition

• Healthy cells stop dividing when they reach surrounding cells

• Prevents overgrowth (tumor cells often ignore this)

5. Process from S Phase to Mitosis

• S Phase: DNA is replicated

• G2 Phase: Proteins and enzymes needed for division are made

• G2/M Checkpoint: Checks for DNA damage or incomplete replication

• If cleared, enters mitosis (M phase)

6. Most Important Cell Cycle Checkpoint

• G1 Checkpoint (restriction point)
  

  • Decides if the cell will divide

  • If not passed, cell enters G0 (non-dividing phase)

7. DNA: Master Blueprint for Protein Synthesis

• DNA contains instructions for making proteins

• Instructions are carried in genes

8. Gene

• Segment of DNA that codes for one polypeptide

• Made of triplet codes (3-base sequences)
  

  • Each triplet = 1 amino acid

9. Exons vs. Introns

• Exons: coding regions of DNA; expressed

• Introns: noncoding regions; intervening, removed during RNA processing

• After transcription, introns are spliced out, and exons are joined to form mature mRNA

Chapter 4: Tissues and Epithelia

1. Levels of Organization

1. Chemical

2. Cellular

3. Tissue

4. Organ

5. Organ system

6. Organism

2. 4 Main Tissue Types

1. Epithelial – covers/lines, forms glands
   

   • Cells closely packed, avascular, regenerates well

3. Connective – supports, binds, protects
   

   • Cells in ECM, varies in vascularity

5. Muscle – movement (skeletal, cardiac, smooth)

6. Nervous – control and communication (neurons + glia)

3. Epithelial Cell Shapes & Layers

• Shapes: squamous, cuboidal, columnar

• Layers:
  

  • Simple (one layer)

  • Stratified (multiple layers)

  • Pseudostratified (appears layered, isn’t)

  • Transitional (stretchable, bladder)

4. Glandular Epithelia

• Endocrine: ductless, secrete hormones into blood

• Exocrine: secrete via ducts (sweat, oil, etc.)

Types of Exocrine Glands:

• Unicellular: goblet cells (mucus)

• Multicellular: duct + secretory unit
  

  • Structure:
    

    • Simple (single duct) vs Compound (branched duct)

    • Tubular, alveolar, or tubuloalveolar

  • Mode of Secretion:
    

    • Merocrine (exocytosis – sweat)

    • Apocrine (part of cell pinched off – mammary)

    • Holocrine (cell ruptures – sebaceous/oil)

Chapter 5: Integumentary System (Skin)

1. 7 Functions of the Skin

1. Protection

2. Body temperature regulation

3. Cutaneous sensation

4. Metabolic functions (vitamin D)

5. Blood reservoir

6. Excretion

7. Barrier (waterproofing)

2. Nutrient Delivery to Epidermis

• Epidermis is avascular; nutrients diffuse from dermis

3. Types of Skin

• Thin skin: 4 layers (everywhere else)

• Thick skin: 5 layers (palms, soles)
  

  • Extra layer: stratum lucidum

4. Layers of the Epidermis (deep to superficial)

1. Stratum basale

2. Stratum spinosum

3. Stratum granulosum

4. Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin)

5. Stratum corneum

Keratin is the protein that provides waterproofing and protection.

5. 2 Main Layers of Skin

1. Epidermis (epithelial tissue)

2. Dermis (connective tissue)

Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer): not skin; stores fat, anchors skin

6. Dermal Features

• Papillary layer: loose CT, dermal papillae (fingerprints)

• Reticular layer: dense irregular CT

7. Pigments in Skin Color

• Melanin: yellow to black

• Carotene: orange

• Hemoglobin: red/pink hue (blood)

8. 3 Types of Cutaneous Glands

1. Eccrine (merocrine) – sweat, everywhere

2. Apocrine – axillary/genital, odor

3. Sebaceous – oil, holocrine, near hair

9. Types of Burns

• 1st degree – epidermis only (red, painful)

• 2nd degree – epidermis + dermis (blisters)

• 3rd degree – full-thickness (no pain initially)

Rule of Nines: estimates % of body burned

10. Skin Disorders

• ABCDE rule for melanoma:
  

  • Asymmetry

  • Border irregularity

  • Color variation

  • Diameter >6mm

  • Evolving shape/size

Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissue

1. 7 Functions of Bones

1. Support

2. Protection

3. Movement

4. Mineral storage (Ca²⁺, phosphate)

5. Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

6. Triglyceride storage

7. Hormone production (osteocalcin)

2. Anatomy of Long Bone

• Diaphysis: shaft

• Epiphyses: ends (contain spongy bone)

• Metaphysis: growth plate region

• Medullary cavity: yellow marrow

• Periosteum: outer layer

• Endosteum: internal lining

3. Connective Tissues of Bone

• Hyaline cartilage: forms early skeleton

• Fibrous CT: in periosteum

• Osseous tissue: bone tissue

4. Bone Development

• Long bones originate from hyaline cartilage

5. Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

• Osteon (Haversian system): structural unit
  

  • Central canal (blood vessels)

  • Lamellae (concentric rings)

  • Lacunae (houses osteocytes)

  • Canaliculi (connect cells)

  • Perforating canals (link central canals)

6. Ossification (Osteogenesis)

• Process of bone formation

Endochondral Ossification (5 Steps):

1. Bone collar forms around cartilage model

2. Cartilage in center calcifies; cavities form

3. Blood vessels invade; spongy bone forms

4. Diaphysis elongates; medullary cavity forms

5. Epiphyses ossify

1. Endochondral Ossification

• Replaces hyaline cartilage

• Forms all bones below the skull, except clavicles

2. Intramembranous Ossification

• Forms flat bones: skull bones, clavicles

• 4 Steps:
  

  1. Ossification centers form in mesenchyme

  2. Osteoid is secreted and calcified

  3. Trabeculae form (spongy bone)

  4. Compact bone forms on edges; red marrow appears

3. Appositional Growth

• Bone thickening (width)

• Osteoblasts under periosteum deposit new bone

• Osteoclasts in endosteum remove bone to widen marrow cavity

4. Bone Repair (4 Steps)

1. Hematoma formation

2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation

3. Bony callus formation

4. Bone remodeling (compact replaces spongy)

5. Fracture Classification

• Position: nondisplaced vs. displaced

• Completeness: complete vs. incomplete

• Skin penetration: open (compound) vs. closed (simple)

Common Fracture Types:

• Comminuted: many fragments

• Compression: crushed

• Spiral: twisted

• Epiphyseal: growth plate

• Depressed: skull pressed inward

• Greenstick: incomplete (common in kids)

6. Bone Remodeling Systems

1. Hormonal control (parathyroid hormone [PTH]) – maintains blood calcium

2. Mechanical stress (muscle pull, gravity)

7. Wolff’s Law

• Bone grows/remodels in response to stress placed on it
  

  • Explains dominant arm being thicker, braces reshaping jaw

8. Types of Bone Tissue

• Compact bone: dense outer layer

• Spongy bone: trabeculae, filled with marrow

9. Bone Shapes

1. Long – femur, humerus

2. Short – carpals, tarsals

3. Flat – sternum, ribs, skull

4. Irregular – vertebrae, pelvis

10. Bone Composition

• Organic:
  

  • Collagen: flexibility, tensile strength

  • Cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, etc.

• Inorganic:
  

  • Mineral salts (calcium phosphate): hardness, compression resistance

11. Bone Cell Types

1. Osteogenic cells – stem cells

2. Osteoblasts – build bone, secrete osteoid

3. Osteocytes – maintain bone matrix

4. Bone lining cells – maintain bone surfaces

5. Osteoclasts – resorb bone (break down)

Cell Lineage:

• Osteogenic → osteoblast → osteocyte

• Osteoclasts come from hematopoietic stem cells (macrophage lineage)

12. Bone Disorders

• Osteomalacia: soft bones (vitamin D/Ca²⁺ deficiency)

• Rickets: children’s form of osteomalacia

• Osteoporosis: bone resorption > deposition
  

  • Common in postmenopausal women

13. Skeleton Overview

• 2 Divisions:
  

  1. Axial: skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum

  2. Appendicular: limbs, girdles

14. Skull and Vertebrae

• Foramen magnum: connects brain to spinal cord (occipital bone)

• Hyoid bone: does not articulate with any other bone

15. Fetal Skull

• Fontanelles: soft spots allow brain growth; become sutures
  

  • Anterior, posterior, mastoid, sphenoidal

16. Articulation

• Definition: any point where two bones meet
  

  • Can be movable (joints) or immovable (sutures)

1. Joint Classification (2 Ways)

• Structural: based on what binds bones
  

  • Fibrous (immovable): sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses

  • Cartilaginous (slightly movable): synchondroses, symphyses

  • Synovial (freely movable): most joints in body

• Functional: based on movement
  

  • Synarthroses (immovable)

  • Amphiarthroses (slightly movable)

  • Diarthroses (freely movable)

2. Synovial Joint Types (6 Types & Movements)

1. Plane – gliding (intercarpal joints)

2. Hinge – flexion/extension (elbow)

3. Pivot – rotation (radioulnar joint)

4. Condylar – flex/ext & ab/adduction (wrist)

5. Saddle – same as condylar, more freedom (thumb)

6. Ball-and-socket – all movement types (shoulder, hip)

3. 5 Main Synovial Joints

1. Shoulder

2. Hip

3. Knee

4. Elbow

5. Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ)

Special characteristics: joint cavity, synovial fluid, articular capsule, reinforcing ligaments, nerves/blood vessels, articular cartilage

4. 6 General Features of Synovial Joints

1. Articular cartilage

2. Joint (synovial) cavity

3. Articular capsule

4. Synovial fluid

5. Reinforcing ligaments

6. Nerves and blood vessels

5. Joint Stability (3 Factors)

1. Articular surface shape

2. Ligament number and location

3. Muscle tone (most important)

6. Types of Movement

• Gliding

• Angular: flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, circumduction

• Rotation: medial/lateral

7. Unhappy Triad Injury

• Damages:
  

  • ACL (anterior cruciate ligament)

  • MCL (medial collateral ligament)

  • Medial meniscus

Chapter 9: Muscles and Muscle Tissue

1. Muscle Tissue Types

• Skeletal: striated, voluntary, multinucleate

• Cardiac: striated, involuntary, gap junctions

• Smooth: non-striated, involuntary

2. Muscle Functions

1. Movement

2. Posture

3. Stabilize joints

4. Generate heat

3. Sliding Filament Model

• Thin (actin) slides over thick (myosin) → muscle shortens

• Appearance:
  

  • I band shortens, H zone disappears, A band remains same

4. Sarcomere Anatomy

• Z disc, M line, A band, I band, H zone

• Thick filaments: myosin

• Thin filaments: actin, tropomyosin, troponin

• Elastic filaments: titin

5. Skeletal Muscle Structure

• Muscle → Fascicle → Fiber → Myofibril → Sarcomere

• CT coverings: epimysium, perimysium, endomysium

• Organelles: many mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), T-tubules

6. Excitation-Contraction Coupling (4 Major Steps)

1. Neuromuscular junction (NMJ): ACh release binds sarcolemma

2. Muscle fiber excitation: depolarization

3. E-C coupling: AP spreads via T-tubules, triggers Ca²⁺ release

4. Cross-bridge cycling: myosin binds actin, slides filaments

7. Muscle ATP Sources

1. Direct phosphorylation (creatine phosphate): 15 sec

2. Anaerobic glycolysis: 30–60 sec

3. Aerobic respiration: 95% of ATP, long-term; ~32 ATP/glucose

8. Muscle Fatigue

• Physiological inability to contract

• Possible causes: ionic imbalances, decreased ATP, lactic acid, SR damage

9. Graded Muscle Responses

• Temporal summation (↑ frequency)

• Recruitment (↑ number of fibers stimulated)

Chapter 10: The Muscular System

1. Muscle Roles

• Agonist (Prime Mover): main muscle causing movement

• Antagonist: opposes or reverses movement

• Synergist: helps agonist, adds force or reduces undesired motion

• Fixator: stabilizes the origin of the prime mover

Note: A single muscle can switch roles depending on the movement.

2. Muscle Attachments

• Origin: fixed or less movable attachment

• Insertion: movable attachment (moves toward origin during contraction)

3. Deepest Abdominal Muscle

• Transversus abdominis
  

  • Fibers run horizontally; compresses abdominal contents

4. Muscles of Mastication

• Masseter – elevates mandible (main chewing muscle)

• Temporalis – elevates and retracts mandible

• Medial pterygoid – grinding movement, side-to-side

• Lateral pterygoid – protrudes jaw, grinding

5. Major Muscle Groups and Prime Movers

Shoulder

• Deltoid – abduction of arm

• Pectoralis major – flexion, adduction, medial rotation

• Latissimus dorsi – extension, adduction, medial rotation

• Rotator cuff muscles (SITS: Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Teres minor, Subscapularis) – stabilize shoulder

Back

• Trapezius – moves scapula, extends neck

• Latissimus dorsi – arm extension/adduction

• Erector spinae – posture, extension of vertebral column

Chest

• Pectoralis major – arm flexion

• Pectoralis minor – pulls scapula forward/down

• Serratus anterior – scapula protraction/stabilization

Abdomen

• Rectus abdominis – flexes vertebral column

• External oblique – rotation/lateral flexion

• Internal oblique – same as external

• Transversus abdominis – compresses abdominal contents

Arm

• Biceps brachii – forearm flexion/supination

• Triceps brachii – forearm extension

• Brachialis – main forearm flexor

• Brachioradialis – synergist in flexion

Thigh (Hip Joint Movers)

• Gluteus maximus – hip extension

• Iliopsoas (Iliacus + Psoas major) – hip flexion

• Adductors (longus, brevis, magnus) – adduction

• Tensor fasciae latae – abduction and medial rotation

Leg (Knee Joint Movers)

• Quadriceps femoris group – knee extension (Rectus femoris, Vastus lateralis/intermedius/medialis)

• Hamstrings – knee flexion and hip extension (Biceps femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus)

• Sartorius – flexes thigh and knee, laterally rotates thigh

Leg (Ankle and Foot Movers)

• Tibialis anterior – dorsiflexion

• Gastrocnemius – plantar flexion

• Soleus – plantar flexion

• Fibularis longus/brevis – eversion and plantar flexion

Chapter 11: Nervous System

Overview:

• The nervous system is the master control and communication system.

• Comprised of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.

Functions:

1. Sensory Input – gathers info from receptors.

2. Integration – processes and interprets input.

3. Motor Output – activates effector organs (muscles/glands).

Divisions of the Nervous System:

• Central Nervous System (CNS): brain + spinal cord; control center.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves outside CNS.
  

  • Sensory (Afferent): sends info to CNS.

  • Motor (Efferent): sends commands from CNS.
    

    • Somatic NS: voluntary (skeletal muscles).

    • Autonomic NS: involuntary (smooth/cardiac muscles, glands).
      

      • Sympathetic: fight or flight.

      • Parasympathetic: rest and digest.

Cell Types:

• Neurons: transmit signals.
  

  • Structures: soma (cell body), dendrites (input), axon (output), myelin sheath (insulation).

  • Types:

    • Structural: multipolar (most common), bipolar, unipolar.

    • Functional: sensory, motor, interneurons.

• Neuroglia: support cells (e.g., astrocytes, Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes).

Electrical Signals:

• Graded Potential (GP): local, short-lived.

• Action Potential (AP): long-distance, all-or-none.

  • 4 Steps:

    1. Resting State

    2. Depolarization

    3. Repolarization

    4. Hyperpolarization

  • Refractory Periods:

    1. Absolute: no new AP possible.

    2. Relative: AP possible with stronger stimulus.

Signal Speed:

• Influenced by axon diameter & myelination.

• Continuous Conduction: unmyelinated.

• Saltatory Conduction: myelinated; faster.

Synapses:

• Presynaptic neuron sends signal; postsynaptic receives.

• Types: axodendritic, axosomatic, axoaxonic.

• EPSPs: excitatory; move membrane closer to threshold.

• IPSPs: inhibitory; move membrane away from threshold.

• Summation: temporal (same source, fast), spatial (multiple sources).

Reflex Arc Components:

1. Receptor

2. Sensory Neuron

3. Integration Center

4. Motor Neuron

5. Effector

Neuronal Pool Circuits:

• Diverging, converging, reverberating, parallel-after-discharge.

Chapter 12: Central Nervous System (CNS)

Development:

• Starts as neural tube.

• 4 major brain regions: cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum.

Matter Types:

• Gray matter: neuron cell bodies.

• White matter: myelinated axons.

Fissures:

• Longitudinal: between hemispheres.

• Transverse: separates cerebrum from cerebellum.

Lobes & Functions:

1. Frontal: motor control, reasoning, planning.

2. Parietal: sensory input.

3. Temporal: hearing, memory.

4. Occipital: vision.

5. Insula: taste, visceral sensation.

Cerebral Cortex Functions:

• Motor Areas: voluntary movement (primary motor cortex, premotor, Broca’s area).

• Sensory Areas: general sensory input (somatosensory cortex, visual, auditory, etc.).

• Association Areas: integrate input for understanding.

White Matter Fibers:

• Association fibers: within hemisphere.

• Commissural fibers: between hemispheres (corpus callosum).

• Projection fibers: cortex to lower brain/spinal cord.

Basal Nuclei:

• Role in movement regulation and cognition.

Diencephalon:

• Thalamus: relay station.

• Hypothalamus: controls autonomic functions, emotions, body temp, endocrine system.

Brainstem:

• Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

  • Medulla: vital reflex centers (cardiac, respiratory).

  • Pons: connects cerebrum and cerebellum.

Cerebellum:

• Coordinates movement, posture, and balance.

• Uses sensory input to fine-tune motor activity.

Functional Systems:

• Limbic System: emotions, memory (includes hippocampus, amygdala).

• Reticular Formation: consciousness and alertness.