PSYC !)@

1. Definition of Intelligence – The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

2. Measuring Intelligence – Intelligence tests assess cognitive ability; commonly measured by IQ (Intelligence Quotient).

3. Types of Intelligence Tests:

   • Achievement Tests – Measure learned knowledge (e.g., school exams).

   • Aptitude Tests – Predict future performance (e.g., SAT, IQ tests).

4. IQ Score Distribution – Normal distribution (bell curve) with an average of 100; majority score between 85-115.

5. Reliability vs. Validity –

   • Reliability: Consistency of test results.

   • Validity: Whether a test measures what it claims to measure.

6. Biological Influences on Intelligence – Genetic factors contribute, but environment plays a major role (e.g., nutrition, education, stimulation).

7. Environmental Factors:

   • Flynn Effect – Rising IQ scores over generations due to better education and nutrition.

   • Stereotype Threat – Anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes can lower test performance.

8. Brain and Intelligence – Higher intelligence correlates with efficient neural processing, particularly in the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex.

9. Extremes in Intelligence:

   • Giftedness – IQ above 130; individuals often excel in specific areas.

   • Intellectual Disability – IQ below 70, combined with difficulty in daily functioning.

10. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) – The ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions in oneself and others.

    Spearman’s g-Factor Theory – Intelligence has a general factor (g) influencing all cognitive abilities.

    • Example: A person who excels in math also performs well in verbal tasks due to strong general intelligence.

11. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities – Intelligence consists of seven independent mental abilities, such as verbal fluency and spatial reasoning.

    • Example: A student might score high in word fluency but struggle with spatial visualization.

12. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences – Intelligence is divided into distinct types, such as linguistic, musical, and interpersonal intelligence.

    • Example: A musician excels in composing and playing instruments but struggles with logical reasoning.

13. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory – Intelligence has three components: analytical (problem-solving), creative (novel thinking), and practical (adapting to environments).

    • Example: An entrepreneur succeeds by combining analytical thinking (market research), creativity (innovative product ideas), and practicality (navigating business challenges).

14. Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale – Measures cognitive ability to identify children needing academic support.

    • Example: A child with a low IQ score receives personalized tutoring to improve reading skills.

15. Terman’s Stanford-Binet IQ Test – Introduced IQ (Intelligence Quotient) as a standardized intelligence measure.

    • Example: A gifted student scoring 140 on the IQ test is placed in an advanced learning program.

1. Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory – Personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts between the id (instincts), ego (reality), and superego (morality).

   • Example: A person feels guilty for skipping work because their superego conflicts with their id's desire for relaxation.

2. Jung’s Analytical Psychology – Introduced the collective unconscious (shared ancestral memories) and archetypes (universal symbols).

   • Example: A hero in myths and movies follows a similar journey, reflecting the "hero" archetype.

3. Adler’s Individual Psychology – Personality is driven by overcoming inferiority and striving for superiority.

   • Example: A student who struggled in childhood becomes highly ambitious and competitive in adulthood.

4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Humans progress through needs (physiological → self-actualization) to reach their full potential.

   • Example: A writer pursues creative fulfillment only after securing financial stability.

5. Rogers’ Self-Concept Theory – A healthy personality develops when self-image aligns with ideal self, fostered by unconditional positive regard.

   • Example: A child raised with unconditional love develops confidence and self-acceptance.

6. Eysenck’s Three-Factor Model – Personality is based on extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

   • Example: An extraverted person thrives in social settings, enjoying parties and networking.

7. Allport’s Trait Theory – Identified cardinal (dominant), central (consistent), and secondary (situational) traits shaping personality.

   • Example: A politician’s ambition (cardinal trait) influences all life decisions.

Key Points

1. Definition of Personality – A unique set of consistent behavioral traits, thoughts, and emotional patterns in an individual.

2. Personality Assessment –

   • Objective Tests – Standardized (e.g., MMPI, Big Five Inventory).

   • Projective Tests – Open-ended (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT).

3. Biological Basis of Personality –

   • Genetics: Twin studies suggest personality traits have a genetic component.

   • Neurotransmitters: Serotonin linked to mood stability, dopamine to reward-seeking behavior.

4. Personality Disorders:

   • Definition – Enduring, inflexible personality traits causing distress/dysfunction.

   • Examples: Antisocial Personality Disorder (manipulative behavior), Borderline Personality Disorder (emotional instability).

5. Situational and Interactionist Perspectives –

   • Situationalism – Behavior depends on the environment rather than traits.

   • Interactionism – Behavior results from personality traits interacting with the environment.

6. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem –

   • Self-Concept: How we see ourselves.

   • Self-Esteem: Our evaluation of self-worth. High self-esteem correlates with better mental health.

7.      Barnum Effect:

Tendency to accept as valid any description of our personality that is generally true

1. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) – People experience discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors, motivating them to reduce inconsistency.

   • Example: A smoker who knows smoking is harmful may quit or justify the habit to reduce discomfort.

2.      Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

o    Love has 3 key ingredients

1.      Intimacy: Knowing a lot about each other

2.      Commitment: Intention to maintain relationship

3.      Passion: Hot stuff, sexual arousal

1.      Can be combined to form different forms of love

3. Conformity Theory (Asch) – People adjust their behavior to match group norms, even if incorrect.

   • Example: A student gives a wrong answer in class because everyone else did.

4. Obedience to Authority (Milgram) – People follow authority figures, even when asked to act against personal morals.

   • Example: A participant administers (fake) shocks in an experiment because an authority figure insists.

5. Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo) – Situational factors influence behavior more than personality, leading people to adopt assigned roles.

   • Example: College students acting as guards in a simulated prison became abusive.

6. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel) – People define themselves by group membership, leading to in-group favoritism and out-group bias.

   • Example: A sports fan strongly identifies with their team and dislikes rival fans.

7. Bystander Effect (Darley & Latané) – The presence of others reduces the likelihood of helping in emergencies due to diffusion of responsibility.

   • Example: A person in a crowded street ignores a collapsed individual, assuming others will help.

Key Points

1. Definition of Social Psychology – The study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations.

2. Social Cognition: Attitudes –

   • Components: Cognitive (beliefs), Affective (feelings), Behavioral (actions).

   • Persuasion Techniques: Foot-in-the-door (small request → larger request), Door-in-the-face (large request → smaller one).

3. Attributions –

   • Internal (Dispositional) – Behavior caused by personality.

   • External (Situational) – Behavior caused by external factors.

   • Fundamental Attribution Error – Overemphasizing personality, underestimating the situation.

4. Group Influence –

   • Social Facilitation – Performance improves on easy tasks when observed but worsens on difficult tasks.

   • Social Loafing – People put in less effort in group tasks than when alone.

   • Deindividuation – Loss of self-awareness in group settings, leading to impulsive behavior.

5. Prejudice and Discrimination –

   • Prejudice – A negative attitude toward a group.

   • Discrimination – Negative actions based on group membership.

   • Implicit Bias – Unconscious stereotypes influencing behavior.

6. Group Conflict and Cooperation –

   • In-group Bias – Favoring one’s own group over others.

   • Superordinate Goals – Common goals reduce conflict between groups (e.g., Robbers Cave Experiment).

7. Helping Behavior –

   • Factors Increasing Help – Feeling responsibility, seeing others help.

   • Factors Reducing Help – Presence of others (Bystander Effect).

8. Aggression –

   • Types: Instrumental (goal-oriented), Hostile (emotion-driven).

   • Biological Influences: Testosterone linked to aggression.

   • Environmental Influences: Media violence exposure can increase aggressive behavior.

9. Interpersonal Attraction –

   • Factors: Proximity (being near someone), Similarity (shared interests), Physical Attractiveness.

   • Mere Exposure Effect – Repeated exposure increases liking.