BIO211 HUMAN A&P EXAM 1 OUTLINE

BIO211 HUMAN A&P EXAM 1 OUTLINE 

• Directional terms: distal, lateral, proximal, medial, superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, 

deep, superficial 

Directional Terms with Examples

• Distal: Farther from the point of attachment or origin.

  • Example: The fingers are distal to the elbow.

• Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.

  • Example: The ears are lateral to the eyes.

• Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment or origin.

  • Example: The knee is proximal to the ankle.

• Medial: Toward the midline of the body.

  • Example: The nose is medial to the cheeks.

• Superior: Above or higher in position.

  • Example: The head is superior to the chest.

• Inferior: Below or lower in position.

  • Example: The stomach is inferior to the heart.

• Anterior: Toward the front of the body.

  • Example: The sternum (breastbone) is anterior to the spine.

• Posterior: Toward the back of the body.

  • Example: The spine is posterior to the sternum.

• Deep: Away from the surface of the body.

  • Example: The bones are deep to the skin.

• Superficial: Toward or on the surface of the body.

  • Example: The skin is superficial to the muscles.

These terms are essential for accurately describing the locations and relationships of different parts of the body. 

• Body systems / organs 

Body Systems / Organs 

Absolutely! Here’s a detailed overview of the body systems and their primary organs:

Integumentary System (Skin)

• Organs: Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands

• Functions: Protects the body, regulates temperature, provides sensory information.

Respiratory System

• Organs: Lungs, trachea, bronchi, diaphragm

• Functions: Facilitates breathing, exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air.

Cardiovascular System

• Organs: Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)

• Functions: Circulates blood, delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues, removes waste products, helps regulate body temperature.

Nervous System

• Organs: Brain, spinal cord, nerves

• Functions: Controls body functions, processes sensory information, enables communication between different parts of the body.

Endocrine System

• Organs: Glands (e.g., pituitary, thyroid, adrenal), pancreas, ovaries, testes

• Functions: Produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction, and other functions.

Renal (Urinary) System

• Organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

• Functions: Removes waste products from the blood, regulates fluid and electrolyte balance, maintains acid-base balance.

Immune System

• Organs: Lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, spleen, thymus, bone marrow

• Functions: Defends against infection and disease, returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream.

Gastrointestinal (GI) System

• Organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder

• Functions: Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates waste.

Reproductive System

• Organs:

  • Male: Testes, prostate, penis

  • Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina

• Functions: Produces sex cells (sperm and eggs), supports fetal development (in females), enables reproduction.

Musculoskeletal System

• Organs: Bones, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments

• Functions: Provides structure, supports and protects organs, enables movement, stores minerals, produces blood cells.

Each of these systems plays a crucial role in maintaining the body’s overall health and functionality. If you need more detailed information on any specific system or organ, feel free to ask!

• Body cavities / quadrants 

Body Cavities / Quadrants

Body Cavities

• Body Cavities: Spaces within the body that contain organs (e.g., thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity).

The human body has several cavities that house and protect vital organs. Here are the main body cavities:

1. Dorsal Body Cavity

   • Cranial Cavity: Contains the brain.

   • Spinal (Vertebral) Cavity: Contains the spinal cord.

2. Ventral Body Cavity

   • Thoracic Cavity: Contains the heart and lungs.

     • Pleural Cavities: Surround each lung.

     • Pericardial Cavity: Surrounds the heart.

   • Abdominopelvic Cavity: Subdivided into the abdominal and pelvic cavities.

     • Abdominal Cavity: Contains digestive organs like the stomach, liver, and intestines.

     • Pelvic Cavity: Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum.

Abdominal Quadrants

• Abdominal Quadrants: Four divisions used to locate organs (Right Upper, Left Upper, Right Lower, Left Lower).

The abdominopelvic cavity is often divided into four quadrants to help locate organs and diagnose conditions:

1. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

   • Contains the liver, gallbladder, right kidney, portions of the stomach, small and large intestines.

2. Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

   • Contains the stomach, spleen, left kidney, portions of the liver, pancreas, small and large intestines.

3. Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

   • Contains the appendix, portions of the small and large intestines, right ovary and fallopian tube (in females), right ureter.

4. Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

   • Contains portions of the small and large intestines, left ovary and fallopian tube (in females), left ureter.

These divisions help healthcare professionals describe locations of pain, injuries, or other medical conditions more precisely.

• Anatomical position: purpose, definition 

Anatomical Position

• Purpose: Provides a standard reference for describing locations and directions on the human body.

• Definition: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at the sides, palms facing forward.

Anatomical Position

Definition: The anatomical position is a standard reference posture used in anatomy to describe the locations and relationships of body parts. In this position, a person stands upright with the following characteristics:

• Body: Standing erect and facing forward.

• Head: Level and looking straight ahead.

• Arms: At the sides.

• Palms: Facing forward.

• Legs: Straight and parallel.

• Feet: Flat on the ground and pointing forward.

Purpose: The anatomical position serves several important functions:

1. Standardization: It provides a consistent frame of reference for describing the location and orientation of body parts, which is crucial for clear communication among healthcare professionals and anatomists.

2. Avoiding Confusion: By using a common reference point, it helps avoid misunderstandings when discussing anatomy, especially since the body can be in various positions during movement or medical procedures.

3. Universal Language: It allows for accurate and precise descriptions of anatomical structures, which is essential for medical imaging, surgery, and education.

• Body planes 

Body Planes

• Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right parts.

• Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

• Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

Body planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body into sections, which helps in describing the locations and movements of different parts of the body. Here are the main body planes:

1. Sagittal Plane

• Description: A vertical plane that divides the body into left and right sections.

• Types:

  • Midsagittal (Median) Plane: Divides the body into equal left and right halves.

  • Parasagittal Plane: Divides the body into unequal left and right sections.

• Movements: Flexion and extension (e.g., bending and straightening the elbow).

2. Frontal (Coronal) Plane

• Description: A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.

• Movements: Abduction and adduction (e.g., moving arms or legs away from or towards the midline of the body).

3. Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

• Description: A horizontal plane that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) sections.

• Movements: Rotation (e.g., turning the head from side to side).

4. Oblique Plane

• Description: Any plane that is not parallel to the sagittal, frontal, or transverse planes. It cuts through the body at an angle.

• Movements: Various movements depending on the angle of the plane.

Understanding these planes is crucial for accurately describing anatomical positions and movements, especially in medical and anatomical studies.

• Homeostasis: positive vs negative feedback loops 

Homeostasis

• Positive Feedback Loops: Enhance or amplify changes (e.g., blood clotting).

Positive Feedback Loops

• Function: These loops amplify a change, pushing the system further away from its set point. They are less common but are crucial for certain processes.

• Examples:

  • Childbirth: During labor, the release of oxytocin increases the intensity and frequency of contractions, which in turn stimulates more oxytocin release until delivery.

  • Blood Clotting: When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets adhere to the site and release chemicals that attract more platelets, rapidly forming a clot.

• Mechanism: Similar to negative feedback but instead of reversing the change, the response enhances it until a specific outcome is achieved.

• Negative Feedback Loops: Counteract changes to maintain stability (e.g., body temperature regulation).

Negative Feedback Loops

• Function: These loops work to reverse a change and bring the system back to its set point, maintaining stability.

• Examples:

  • Body Temperature Regulation: When body temperature rises, sweat glands are activated to cool the body down. Conversely, when body temperature drops, shivering generates heat to warm the body up.

  • Blood Glucose Regulation: When blood glucose levels rise, insulin is released to lower them. When levels fall, glucagon is released to increase them.

• Mechanism: Involves sensors (receptors) detecting a change, a control center (often the brain) processing the information, and effectors (muscles or glands) carrying out the response to counteract the change.

Understanding these feedback mechanisms is essential for grasping how the body maintains homeostasis and responds to various stimuli.

Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions. This is achieved through feedback loops, which can be either positive or negative.

• Mechanisms of homeostasis 

Mechanisms of Homeostasis

Processes that maintain the internal environment within narrow limits, such as temperature regulation, pH balance, and glucose levels.

Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions. This is crucial for the proper functioning of cells and organs. Here are the key mechanisms involved in homeostasis:

1. Feedback Loops

• Negative Feedback Loops: These loops work to reverse a change and bring the system back to its set point, maintaining stability.

  • Example: Regulation of body temperature. When body temperature rises, sweat glands are activated to cool the body down. Conversely, when body temperature drops, shivering generates heat to warm the body up.

• Positive Feedback Loops: These loops amplify a change, pushing the system further away from its set point. They are less common but are crucial for certain processes.

  • Example: During childbirth, the release of oxytocin increases the intensity and frequency of contractions, which in turn stimulates more oxytocin release until delivery.

2. Hormonal Regulation

• Endocrine System: Hormones released by endocrine glands regulate various functions such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction.

  • Example: Insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels. Insulin lowers blood glucose when it is high, while glucagon raises it when it is low.

3. Nervous System Control

• Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate.

  • Example: The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate during stress, while the parasympathetic nervous system decreases it during relaxation.

4. Organ Systems Interactions

• Respiratory System: Maintains oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood.

  • Example: Breathing rate increases during exercise to supply more oxygen to muscles and remove excess carbon dioxide.

• Renal System: Regulates water and electrolyte balance.

  • Example: Kidneys filter blood to remove waste products and adjust the concentration of electrolytes.

5. Cellular Mechanisms

• Cell Membrane Transport: Regulates the movement of substances into and out of cells.

  • Example: Sodium-potassium pump maintains the balance of sodium and potassium ions inside and outside the cell, crucial for nerve impulse transmission.

These mechanisms work together to ensure that the body’s internal environment remains stable, allowing it to function optimally.

If you have any more questions or need further details, feel free to ask!

• Structural organization of the human body (the “triangle”) 

Structural Organization of the Human Body

Often depicted as a hierarchy:

• Cells: Basic unit of life.

• Tissues: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

• Organs: Structures composed of different tissues working together.

• Organ Systems: Groups of organs that perform related functions.

• Organism: A complete living being.

The structural organization of the human body is often depicted as a hierarchy, sometimes referred to as the “triangle” of organization. This hierarchy ranges from the simplest to the most complex structures. Here’s a breakdown:

1. Chemical Level

• Description: The simplest level, involving atoms and molecules essential for life.

• Examples: Water, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids.

2. Cellular Level

• Description: Cells are the basic units of life, made up of molecules.

• Examples: Muscle cells, nerve cells, blood cells.

3. Tissue Level

• Description: Groups of similar cells that perform a common function.

• Examples: Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, nervous tissue.

4. Organ Level

• Description: Organs are made up of different types of tissues working together to perform specific functions.

• Examples: Heart, lungs, kidneys, liver.

5. Organ System Level

• Description: Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely to accomplish a common purpose.

• Examples: Digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, nervous system.

6. Organismal Level

• Description: The highest level of organization, where all organ systems combine to make up the entire organism.

• Example: The human body as a whole.

This hierarchical structure ensures that the body functions efficiently and effectively, with each level building upon the previous one to create a complex, integrated system.

If you have any more questions or need further details, feel free to ask!

• Cells: structures and functions 

Cells: Structures and Functions

• Cell Membrane: Protects the cell and controls what enters and leaves.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material.

• Mitochondria: Produces energy.

• Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins.

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms. Each cell has specialized structures that perform specific functions necessary for the cell’s survival and proper functioning. Here’s an overview of the main structures and their functions:

1. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)

• Structure: A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

• Function: Regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell, provides protection, and facilitates communication with other cells.

2. Nucleus

• Structure: A membrane-bound organelle containing the cell’s genetic material (DNA).

• Function: Controls cellular activities by regulating gene expression and mediating the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.

3. Cytoplasm

• Structure: A jelly-like substance that fills the cell, containing organelles and cytosol.

• Function: Supports and suspends organelles, and is the site of many metabolic reactions.

4. Mitochondria

• Structure: Double-membrane organelles with their own DNA.

• Function: Produce energy (ATP) through cellular respiration, often referred to as the “powerhouses” of the cell.

5. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Structure: A network of membranous tubules and sacs.

  • Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes.

  • Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes.

• Function:

  • Rough ER: Synthesizes and processes proteins.

  • Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies chemicals, and stores calcium ions.

6. Ribosomes

• Structure: Small particles composed of RNA and proteins.

• Function: Synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA (mRNA).

7. Golgi Apparatus

• Structure: Stacks of flattened membranous sacs.

• Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for storage or transport out of the cell.

8. Lysosomes

• Structure: Membrane-bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes.

• Function: Break down waste materials and cellular debris.

9. Peroxisomes

• Structure: Membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes.

• Function: Break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances.

10. Cytoskeleton

• Structure: A network of protein fibers (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules).

• Function: Provides structural support, facilitates cell movement, and aids in intracellular transport.

11. Centrioles

• Structure: Cylindrical structures composed of microtubules.

• Function: Play a role in cell division by helping to organize the mitotic spindle.

12. Vacuoles

• Structure: Membrane-bound sacs.

• Function: Store nutrients, waste products, and other materials. In plant cells, the central vacuole also maintains turgor pressure.

13. Chloroplasts (in plant cells)

• Structure: Double-membrane organelles containing chlorophyll.

• Function: Conduct photosynthesis to convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose.

Each of these structures works together to ensure the cell operates efficiently and effectively. If you have any more questions or need further details, feel free to ask!

• Osmosis vs diffusion and examples

Osmosis vs Diffusion

• Osmosis: Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from low to high solute concentration.

• Diffusion: Movement of particles from high to low concentration.

Diffusion

• Definition: The movement of molecules or particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached.

• Medium: Can occur in gasses, liquids, and solids.

• Membrane Requirement: Does not require a semipermeable membrane.

• Examples:

  • Perfume: When you spray perfume in a room, the scent molecules diffuse through the air from an area of high concentration (near the spray) to an area of low concentration (the rest of the room).

  • Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Exchange: In the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli (high concentration) into the blood (low concentration), while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood (high concentration) into the alveoli (low concentration) to be exhaled.

Osmosis

• Definition: The movement of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.

• Medium: Occurs in liquids.

• Membrane Requirement: Requires a semipermeable membrane.

• Examples:

  • Plant Roots: Water moves from the soil (lower solute concentration) into the root cells (higher solute concentration) through osmosis.

  • Red Blood Cells: When placed in a hypotonic solution (lower solute concentration outside the cell), water enters the cells by osmosis, causing them to swell and potentially burst.

Key Differences

• Substances Involved: Diffusion involves the movement of solute and solvent particles, while osmosis specifically involves the movement of water molecules.

• Membrane: Diffusion can occur without a membrane, whereas osmosis requires a semipermeable membrane.

• Direction: In diffusion, particles move from high to low concentration. In osmosis, water moves from low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

Both processes are essential for maintaining homeostasis in biological systems and occur naturally without the need for energy input.

• Tissues (especially epithelial): types, locations, characteristics, functions 

Tissues (Especially Epithelial)

• Types: Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

• Locations: Epithelial tissue covers surfaces and lines cavities.

• Characteristics: Cells are closely packed with minimal extracellular material.

• Functions: Protection, absorption, secretion.

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue, or epithelium, is one of the four primary types of tissue in the human body. It covers body surfaces, lines, cavities, and forms glands. Here’s a detailed overview:

Types of Epithelial Tissue

1. Simple Epithelium

   • Simple Squamous Epithelium

     • Location: Lining of blood vessels (endothelium), air sacs of lungs (alveoli).

     • Characteristics: Single layer of flat cells.

     • Functions: Allows for diffusion and filtration.

   • Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

     • Location: Kidney tubules, glands.

     • Characteristics: Single layer of cube-shaped cells.

     • Functions: Secretion and absorption.

   • Simple Columnar Epithelium

     • Location: Lining of the stomach, intestines, and uterine tubes.

     • Characteristics: Single layer of tall, column-like cells.

     • Functions: Absorption and secretion; may have microvilli or cilia.

   • Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

     • Location: Lining of the respiratory tract.

     • Characteristics: Appears stratified but is a single layer with varying cell heights.

     • Functions: Secretion and movement of mucus by cilia.

2. Stratified Epithelium

   • Stratified Squamous Epithelium

     • Location: Skin (keratinized), mouth, esophagus, vagina (non-keratinized).

     • Characteristics: Multiple layers of flat cells.

     • Functions: Protection against abrasion.

   • Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

     • Location: Sweat glands, mammary glands.

     • Characteristics: Typically two layers of cube-shaped cells.

     • Functions: Protection and secretion.

   • Stratified Columnar Epithelium

     • Location: Male urethra, ducts of some glands.

     • Characteristics: Multiple layers with columnar cells on the surface.

     • Functions: Protection and secretion.

   • Transitional Epithelium

     • Location: Urinary bladder, ureters.

     • Characteristics: Multiple layers that can stretch and change shape.

     • Functions: Allows for expansion and stretching.

3. Glandular Epithelium

   • Exocrine Glands

     • Location: Sweat glands, salivary glands.

     • Characteristics: Secrete substances onto body surfaces or into body cavities.

     • Functions: Secretion of sweat, saliva, enzymes.

   • Endocrine Glands

     • Location: Thyroid gland, adrenal glands.

     • Characteristics: Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

     • Functions: Regulation of various body functions through hormone secretion.

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

• Cellularity: Composed of tightly packed cells with minimal extracellular matrix.

• Polarity: Has an apical surface (exposed to the body exterior or cavity) and a basal surface (attached to underlying connective tissue).

• Avascular but Innervated: Lacks blood vessels but has nerve endings.

• Regeneration: High capacity for regeneration due to frequent cell division.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

• Protection: Shields underlying tissues from mechanical and chemical damage.

• Absorption: Takes in nutrients and other substances.

• Secretion: Produces and releases substances like enzymes, hormones, and mucus.

• Excretion: Removes waste products.

• Filtration: Allows selective passage of materials.

• Sensation: Contains sensory receptors for detecting changes in the environment.

• Integument: structures, layers, accessory structures

Integument: Structures, Layers, Accessory Structures

• Structures: Skin, hair, nails.

• Layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (inner).

• Accessory Structures: Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles.

If you need more detailed information on any of these topics, feel free to ask!

The integumentary system, also known as the integument, is the body’s outer layer and includes the skin, hair, nails, and various glands. Here’s a detailed overview:

Structures of the Integumentary System

1. Skin

   • Epidermis: The outermost layer, composed of stratified squamous epithelial cells. It includes:

     • Stratum Corneum: The outermost layer of dead, keratinized cells.

     • Stratum Lucidum: Found only in thick skin (palms and soles).

     • Stratum Granulosum: Where keratinocytes begin to die and form a waterproof barrier.

     • Stratum Spinosum: Provides strength and flexibility.

     • Stratum Basale: The deepest layer, where new cells are generated.

   • Dermis: The middle layer, made of dense connective tissue. It contains:

     • Papillary Layer: Contains capillaries and sensory neurons.

     • Reticular Layer: Contains collagen and elastin fibers, providing strength and elasticity.

   • Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer): The deepest layer, composed of loose connective and adipose tissue. It insulates the body and absorbs shock.

2. Hair

   • Structure: Composed of keratin. Includes the hair shaft (visible part), hair root (below the skin), and hair follicle (surrounds the root).

   • Function: Provides protection, regulates body temperature, and facilitates the sensation of touch.

3. Nails

   • Structure: Made of hard keratin. Includes the nail plate (visible part), nail bed (skin under the nail), cuticle, matrix (growth area), and lunula (white, crescent-shaped area).

   • Function: Protects the tips of fingers and toes.

4. Glands

   • Sweat Glands:

     • Eccrine Glands: Found all over the body, help regulate body temperature through sweat.

     • Apocrine Glands: Found in specific areas like armpits and groin, become active during puberty.

   • Sebaceous Glands: Secrete sebum (oil) to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair.

Functions of the Integumentary System

• Protection: Acts as a barrier against pathogens, chemicals, and physical injuries.

• Regulation: Helps regulate body temperature through sweating and blood flow.

• Sensation: Contains sensory receptors for touch, pain, and temperature.

• Excretion: Removes waste products through sweat.

• Synthesis: Produces vitamin D when exposed to sunlight.

Understanding the integumentary system is crucial for recognizing how the body protects itself and maintains homeostasis. If you have any more questions or need further details, feel free to ask!