Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

40.1: Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization

• Anatomy: Biological structure

• Physiology: Biological function

• A multicellular organization only works if every cell has access to an aqueous environment, either inside or outside the animal’s body

• Interstitial Fluid: Fluid that fills spaces between cells

• Complex body plans are advantageous for many reasons, especially on land

• Tissues: Groups of cells with similar appearance and function

  • Organs: Functional units of tissues

  • Organ System: Groups of organs that work together

• Epithelial Tissues/Epithelia: Sheets of cells that cover the outside of the body, acting as a barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, and fluid loss

  • Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Multilayered, regenerates rapidly, for surfaces subject to abrasion

    • Outer skin, linings of mouth, anus, vagina

  • Cuboidal Epithelium: Disk shaped cells for secretion

    • Kidney tubules and many glands, such as thyroid gland and salivary glands

  • Simple Columnar Epithelium: Large, brick shaped cells for secretion or active absorption

    • Intestines to secrete digestive juices and absorb nutrients

  • Simple Squamous Epithelium: Single layer of plate like cells, function in exchange of material via diffusion

    • Thin and leaky, lines blood vessels and air sacs of lungs

  • Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium: Single layer of cells varying in height and position of nuclei

    • Forms mucous membrane to line portions of respiratory tract

  • Polarized, so they have an apical surface facing the lumen, with specialized projections, and the basal surface

• Connective Tissue: Sparse population cells scattered through extracellular matrix (web of fibers in liquid, jelly, or solid), holds tissues and organs together in one place

  • Fibroblasts: Cells within the matrix, secrete fiber proteins

  • Macrophages: Engulf foreign particles and debris by phagocytosis

  • Collagenous Fibers: Provide strength and flexibility

  • Reticular Fibers: Join connective tissue to adjacent tissues

  • Elastic Fibers: Make tissue elastic

• Loose Connective Tissue: Binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place

  • Most widespread

  • All three types of fibers, weaved loosely. In skin and throughout body

• Fibrous Connective Tissue: Dense with collagenous fibers, found in tendons and ligaments

  • Tendons: Attach muscles to bones

  • Ligaments: Connect bones at joints

• Bone: Mineralized connective tissue

  • Osteoblasts: Cells that form bone, deposit a matrix of collagen

  • Repeating units of osteons

• Adipose Tissue: Specialized loose connective tissue that stores fat in its cells

  • Insulate body, store fuel as fat

• Cartilage: Has collagenous fibers embedded in rubbery chondroitin sulfate (protein carbohydrate complex)

  • Chondrocytes: Cells that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate

• Muscle Tissue: Tissue responsible for almost all types of body movement

  • Skeletal Muscle/Striated Muscle: Responsible for voluntary movements

    • Bundles of long cells, muscle fibers

    • Sarcomeres: Contractile units, arranged in a way that gives it its striped appearance

  • Smooth Muscle: Lacks striations, responsible for involuntary body activities

    • Bladder, digestive tract, arteries

  • Cardiac Muscle: Forms contractile walls of heart, branched fibers interconnect via intercalated disks, relaying signals from cell to cell for heart contraction

    • Striated like skeletal muscle

• Nervous Tissue: Receiving, processing, and transmission of info

  • Neurons: Nerve cells, transmit nerve impulses

  • Glial Cells/Glia: Support cells

• Two major systems for controlling responses to stimuli, endocrine and nervous

  • Endocrine System: Signaling molecules released into bloodstream by endocrine cells

  • Nervous System: Neurons transmit signals along routes connecting specific locations

• Hormones: Signaling molecules broadcast throughout body by endocrine system

1. Sheets of cells

2. I’m not sure

3. Since hormones being released and yeah

40.2: Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals

• Regulator: Animal that uses internal mechanisms to control change (body temp) during external fluctuation

• Conformer: Allows internal condition to change with external changes

• Homeostasis: Maintenance of internal balance

  • Set Point: Value that control system tries to keep values

  • Stimulus: Fluctuation in variable

  • Sensor: Detects fluctuations and signals a control center

  • Response: Triggered by sensor

• Negative Feedback: Tries to reduce stimulus to maintain homeostasis

• Positive Feedback: Amplifies stimulus, helps finish processes

• Circadian Rhythm: Physiological changes that happen ~every 24 hours

• Acclimatization: Animal’s physiological adjustment to changes in environment

  • ex. elk goes to high altitudes and blood pH is raised, so pee becomes more alkaline to return it to normal

1. I forgot

2. Also not sure

3. Ugh I skipped that chapter

40.3: Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior

• Thermoregulation: Process animals maintain their body temperature within a normal range

  • Endothermic: Warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism

  • Ectothermic: Gain most of heat from external sources

  • Poikilotherm: Animal whose body temp varies

  • Homeotherm: Animal with relatively consistent body temp

• Radiation: Emission of electromagnetic waves by all objects warmer than 0 kelvin

• Evaporation: Removal of heat from surface of liquid which is losing some of its molecules as gas

• Convection: Transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a surface

• Conduction: Transfer of heat between objects in contact

• Integumentary System: Outer covering of body (skin, hair, nails)

• In response to temp changes, many animals alter the amount of blood (so also heat) flowing between their body core and skin

  • Vasodilation: Widening of superficial (near surface) blood vessels to increase blood flow and heat transfer

  • Vasoconstriction: Decrease diameter of superficial vessels to reduce blood flow and heat transfer

• Countercurrent Exchange: Transfer of heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions

• Thermogenesis: Endotherms vary heat production to match changing rates of heat loss

• Hypothalamus: Brain region with sensors for thermoregulation, also controls circadian clock

1. Countercurrent exchange? idk lol

2. Amount of sunlight will most likely influence nectar production, which means less food for the hummingbird

3. Not sure

40.4: Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment

• Metabolic Rate: Sum of all the energy an animal uses in a given interval, measured in J, cal, or kcal

  • Basic Metabolic Rate (BMR): Rate of nongrowing endotherm at rest with an empty stomach not under stress

  • Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR): Rate of fasting, nonstressed ectotherm at rest

• Torpor: State of decreased activity and metabolism

  • Many birds and small animals do it daily (bats during day, hummingbirds on cold nights)

  • Hibernation: Long term torpor, to combat winter cold and food scarcity

1. Mouse, since it is an endotherm, so it consumes more energy, and hence consumes more oxygen to do its metabolic processes

2. Maybe the lion? Not sure

3. Start to go into torpor? idk

Chapter 41: Animal Nutrition

41.1: An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients

• Nutrition: Process an animal uses to take in and make use of food to satisfy their three needs (chemical energy, organic building blocks, essential nutrients)

  • Essential Nutrients: Substances that an animal requires but can’t assemble from simple organic molecules

    • Amino acids and fatty acids, plus certain vitamins and minerals

    • Too little causes deformities, disease, and death

• Essential Amino Acids: The half of amino acids that must be obtained from an animal’s food

  • Animal has enzymes to produce about half

  • Plants and microorganisms can produce all 20

• Essential Fatty Acids: Fatty acids that animals can’t form the double bonds for that must be acquired by its food

• Vitamins: Organic molecules that are required in the diet in very small amounts

• Minerals: Inorganic nutrients required in small amounts

• Herbivores: Eat mostly plants and algae

• Carnivores: Mostly eat other animals

• Omnivores: Consume animals and plants or algae

• Too little chemical energy causes malnutrition

1. We can produce half on our own

2. I don’t remember this

3. Looking at its diet and analyzing which nutrients are being consumed and which ones aren’t, or seeing the diseases it contracts

41.2: Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination

• Ingestion: First stage of food processing, act of eating or feeding

  • Filter Feeding: Strain small organisms or food particles from surrounding medium

  • Bulk Feeding: Eat relatively large pieces of food

    • Using tentacles, pincers, claws, venomous fangs, jaws, and teeth

  • Substrate Feeding: Animals live in or on their food source

  • Fluid Feeding: Suck nutrient rich liquid from living host

• Digestion: Second stage of food processing, food broken down into small enough molecules for body to absorb

  • Mechanical Digestion: Chewing or grinding, breaks food into smaller pieces and increases surface area

  • Chemical Digestion: Cleaves large molecules into smaller components

  • Enzymatic Hydrolysis: Chemical breakdown by digestive enzymes of fat or a macromolecule

• Absorption: Animal’s cells absorb small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars

• Elimination: Undigested material passes out of the digestive system

• Intracellular Digestion: Hydrolysis of food in food vacuoles

  • Cell engulfs food by phagocytosis or pinocytosis. Food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes

• Extracellular Digestion: Breakdown of food in compartments continuous with he outside of the animal’s body

• Gastrovascular Cavity: Digestive compartment with single opening in animals with simple body plans, helps in digestion and distribution of nutrients throughout the body

  • In the hydra, uses tentacles to stuff prey into its mouth and gastrovascular cavity

    • Specialized gland cells of its gastrodermis secrete digestive enzymes to break the soft tissue of prey into tiny pieces

      • Gastrodermis: Tissue layer that lines the gastrovascular cavity

    • Intracellular digestion

    • Undigested materials eliminated through mouth

• Alimentary Canal: Digestive tube with two openings, a mouth and an anus, in animals with complex body plans

1. Gastrovascular has one opening, alimentary has two

2. We start absorbing in absorption, before that it is just floating around but not really doing anything

3. I’m confused, I have no idea

41.3: Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system

• Oral Cavity: Mouth

• Salivary Glands: Releases saliva when anticipating food (or it arrives)

• Mucus: Viscous mixture of water, salts, cells, and glycoproteins (carbohydrate protein complex)

  • Contains lots of amylase and glycogen

    • Amylase: Breaks down starch

• Tongue shapes a mixture of saliva and food into a ball called bolus

  • Pharynx: The throat region which receives the bolus, leading to two passageways, the esophagus and trachea

    • Esophagus: Muscular tube that connects to the stomach

    • Trachea/Windpipe: Leads to lungs

  • Must go into esophagus, going into trachea causes choking

  • Peristalsis: Pushes food along in the esophagus, alternating waves of smooth muscle contraction and relaxation

  • Sphincter: Ring like valve of muscle, acts like a drawstring at the end of the esophagus, regulates passage of food into stomach

• Stomach: Located just below the diaphragm, stores and processes food

  • Secretes gastric juice and mixes it with food through churning action

    • Chyme: Mixture of ingested food and gastric juice

    • Hydrochloric Acid disrupts extracellular matrix that binds cells together in meat and plant material

    • Pepsin: A protease that attacks exposed bonds weakened by HCl

      • Protease: Protein digesting enzyme

  • Two types of cells in gastric glands produce gastric juice components

    • Parietal Cells use ATP driven pump to expel H+ ions into the lumen while chloride ions diffuse into the lumen, they combine only in the lumen to make HCl

    • Chief cells release pepsinogen into lumen (inactive form of pepsin), converted into pepsin by HCl which clips off part of the molecule and exposes its active site

• Small Intestine: Longest compartment of alimentary canal

  • Duodenum: First 10 inches of small intestine

    • Chyme arrive triggers release of secretin hormone, causing pancreas to secrete bicarbonate

• Fat is difficult to digest, so it is done by bile salts, which are like emulsifiers that break apart fat and lipids

  • Bile: Secretion of liver that is stored and concentrated in the gallbladder, largely composed of bile salts

• Contents of duodenum moves to remaining regions of small intestine (jejunum and ileum) by peristalsis

• Villi: Finger shaped folds in large intestine

  • Microvilli: Microscopic projections within the villi, a “brush border”

• Capillaries and veins carry nutrient rich blood away from villi, converge into hepatic portal vein

  • Hepatic Portal Vein: Blood vessel that leads directly to the liver

    • Liver → Heart → other tissues and organs

      • Allows liver to regulate distribution of nutrients

      • Allows liver to remove toxic substances before they can circulate

• Hydrolysis of a fat lipase in generates fatty acids and a monoglyceride (glycerol + fatty acid), absorbed by epithelial cells and combined into triglycerides

  • Chylomicrons: Triglycerides coated in phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins

    • First enter a lacteal

      • Lacteal: Vessel at core of each villus

        • Part of vertebrate lymphatic system, a network of vessels filled with lymph (clear fluid)

        • Lymph with chylomicrons goes into larger vessels of lymphatic system and then heart

• Small intestine also recovers water and ions

• Large Intestine: Where alimentary canal ends, including colon, cecum, and rectum

  • Connected at a T shaped junction with small intestine (arms are colon and cecum)

• Colon: Leads to rectum and anus, completes recovery of water (which started in the small intestine)

• Cecum: Ferments ingested material, small in humans and has an appendix

  • Appendix: Finger shaped extension that acts as a reservoir for symbiotic microorganisms

• Feces: Wastes of digestive system, becoming increasingly solid as it moves down colon by peristalsis

• Rectum: Where feces stored before eliminated

  • Two sphincters (rings) separate rectum and anus, inner involuntary outer voluntary

1. What’s an acid reflux…is that concerning that i don’t know :/

2. Not sure

3. It would begin to digest the crushed food by breaking it down because of the high acid content

41.4: Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet

• Microbiome: Collection of microorganisms living in and on the body

• Vertebrae digestive systems show evolutionary adaptations

  • Assortment of teeth correlates with diet

  • Herbivores have fermentation chambers to digest cellulose

  • Herbivores have longer alimentary canals than carnivores, since it takes longer to digest veg

1. It takes longer to digest vegetables, so it helps make sure that it is fully broken down

2. Don’t wanna go back and check

3. Maybe because the yogurt itself must also be digested?

41.5: Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite

• Glucose homeostasis relies on antagonistic effects of hormones insulin and glucagon

  • Insulin: Decreases blood glucose concentration by triggering uptake of glucose from blood into body cells

  • Glucagon: Increases blood glucose concentration by releasing glucose into blood from energy stores

• In pancreas, pancreatic islets have alpha cells, which make glucagon, and beta cells, which make insulin

• Diabetes Mellitus: Caused by deficiency of insulin or decreased response to insulin in target tissues

• Ghrelin: Hormone that triggers hunger, secreted by stomach wall

• Leptin: Hormone produced by fat, suppresses appetite

• Vertebrates store excess calories in glycogen and fat, which can be tapped when it uses more calories than it consumes

  • Too many calories causes obesity

1. Appetite issues caused by hormones not working properly (insulin, leptin)

2. Leptin levels might begin to even out and then they start to gain more

3. Causes very high glucose levels and liver tries to filter it out but exhausts itself idk

Chapter 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

42.1: Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body

• Natural selection has caused two basic adaptations for efficient exchange for all of an animal’s cells

  • Simple body plan with many or all cells in direct contact with the environment

  • If not simple body plant, have a circulatory system

• Gastrovascular Cavity: Distributes substances throughout the body and in digestion, central in animals with almost all cells in contact with environment

• Circulatory system has three components, circulatory fluid, interconnecting vessels, and heart, to connect the aqueous environment to organs that exchange gases, absorb nutrients, and dispose of wastes

  • Heart: Muscular pump that powers circulation using metabolic energy

  • Either opened or closed

    • Open Circulatory System: Circulatory fluid (hemolymph) is also the interstitial fluid

      • Contraction of heart pumps hemolymph through circulatory vessels into interconnected sinuses surrounding the organs

      • In the sinuses, hemolymph and body cells exchange gases

    • Closed Circulatory System: Circulatory fluid (blood) confined to vessels and distinct from interstitial fluid

      • 1+ hearts pump blood into vessels that branch into smaller ones and infiltrate issues and organs

• Cardiovascular System: Heart and blood vessels in vertebrates

• 3 main types of blood vessels where blood only flows in one direction

  • Arteries: Blood from heart to organs

  • Arterioles: What arteries branch into within organs

  • Capillaries: Microscopic vessels with thin porous walls, get blood from arterioles

    • Capillary Beds: Networks of capillaries, infiltrate tissues

    • Converge into venules which converge into veins, which carry blood back to the heart

• arteries, away, veins, villain (always comes back)

• All hearts have 2+ muscular chambers.

  • Atria: Receives blood entering the heart

  • Ventricles: Pumps blood out of the heart

• Single Circulation: Blood travels through body in a single cycle then returns to its starting point

• Double Circulation: Two circuits of blood flow, with both pumps combined in the heart

  • Pulmonary Circuit: Right side circuit pumps oxygen poor blood into capillary beds, net movement of O₂ into blood, CO₂ out

  • Systemic Circuit: Left side circuit heart pumps oxygen enriched blood to capillary beds in organs

1. Continues to just circulate

2. Not sure

3. It would leak out and the blood being pumped in wouldn’t be oxygen rich

42.2: Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals

• Timely delivery of oxygen (O2) to organs is crucial; brain cells may die if O2 supply is interrupted. Mammalian cardiovascular system meets the body's continuous O2 demand through an organized system

• Pulmonary circuit

  • Right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs via pulmonary arteries.

  • Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via pulmonary veins.

• Systemic circuit

  • Left ventricle pumps oxygen-rich blood to body tissues through the aorta.

  • Branches lead to capillary beds in the head, arms, abdominal organs, and legs.

  • Capillaries facilitate O2 diffusion to tissues and CO2 absorption.

  • Veins return oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium via superior and inferior vena cavae.

• Human heart located behind the sternum, cardiac muscle predominant

• Atria serve as blood collection chambers, ventricles pump blood forcefully

• Cardiac Cycle: One complete sequence of pumping and filling of the heart

• Systole: Contraction phase of the cardiac cycle

• Diastole: Relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle

• Cardiac Output: Volume pumped per minute; determined by heart rate and stroke volume.

• Four valves prevent backflow and keep blood moving in the right direction, 2x AV, 2x semilunar

  • Antriventricular (AV) Valve: Lies between each atrium and ventricle, anchored by strong fibers that keep them from turning inside out during ventricular systole

  • Semilunar Valves: Located at the two exits of the heart

• Heart murmurs: Abnormal sound made by blood squirting backward through a defective valve

• Heartbeat originates in the heart, autorhythmic cells in the right atrium act as pacemaker

• Sinoatrial (SA) Node: Cluster of cells in the right atrium; acts as a pacemaker, setting the rate and timing of cardiac muscle contractions.

  • Impulses spread through atria, delayed at atrioventricular (AV) node for complete atrial contraction

    • Atrioventricular (AV) Node: Relay point between left and right atria, delays impulses for ~0.1 second before spreading to the heart apex

• Bundle branches and Purkinje fibers conduct signals to ventricles

• Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions regulate heart rate; hormones and body temperature also influence pacemaker function.

• Sympathetic division accelerates heart rate, parasympathetic division slows it down.

• Hormones (e.g., epinephrine) and body temperature also impact pacemaker.

• Heart rate increases during activities and fever, decreases during rest

42.3: Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels

• Endothelium: Single layer of flattened epithelial cells, line all blood vessels

• Large blood vessel diameter means slow blood flow, small = fast

• Systolic Pressure: Arterial blood pressure when the heart contracts during ventricular systole, when it is highest and spikes

• Pulse: Rhythmic buging of artery walls

• Diastolic Pressure: Lower blood pressure when ventricles are relaxed

• Vasoconstriction: When arterioles narrow after smooth muscles in arteriole walls contract. Increases blood pressure upstream in arteries

  • Vasodilation: Increase in diameter of arterioles when smooth muscles relax

• Lymphatic System: Returns lost fluid and proteins in capillaries, which leak into tissues

  • Lymph: Returned fluid that circulates in the lymphatic system

  • Lymph Nodes: Lymph filtering organs which help in defense

42.4: Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defense

• Plasma: Liquid matrix, holds whole blood

  • Whole blood consists of cells and cell fragments (platelets) suspended in plasma

• Plasma proteins influence blood pH, osmotic pressure, viscosity, lipid transport, immunity, and blood clotting

• Erthrocytes: Red blood cells, transport O₂. Mature ones lack nuclei, small disks. Short lives, ~120 days before being replaced

  • Hemoglobin: Iron containing proteon that transports O₂

    • Sickle Cell Disease: Abnormal form of hemoglobin plymeries into aggregates, which distort the shape into a curved shape that looks like a sickle

• Leukocytes: White blood cells, defend against microorganisms and foreign substances in blood

• Platelets, erthryocytes, and leukocytes are all stem cells, which can reproduce indefinitely

• Thrombus: Blood clot that forms within a blood vessel and blocks flow of blood

• Atherosclerosis: Hardening of the arteries by accumulation of fatty deposits

• Heart Attack: Damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue from blockage of one or more coronary arteries

• Stroke: Death of nervous tissue in the brain due to lack of O₂

• Hypertension: High blood pressure

42.5: Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces

• Gas Exchange: Gas undergoes net fiddusion from where its partial pressure is higher to where it is lower

  • Partial Pressure: Pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases

• Structure and organization of respiratory surfaces differ among animal species

• Effectiveness of gas exchange in some gills is increased by ventillation and countercurrent exchange

  • Ventillation: Movement of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface to maintain partial pressure gradients necessary for gas exchange

  • Countercurrent Exchange: Exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions (in fish, blood and water)

• Tracheal System: Branched network of tubes that brings O₂ directly to cells in insects

  • Largest tubes (trachae) open to the outside

• Internal Lungs: Localized respiratory organs in most terrestrial vertebrates

• In mammals, air → nostrils → nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi

  • Pharynx: Where paths for air and food cross

    • Larynx: Upper part of respiratory tract, moves upward and tips epiglottis over the glottis when food is swallowed

    • Trachea: Windpipe. Closed by larynx when swallowing, branches into two bronchi

  • Bronchi: Each lead to one lung, and branch into bronchioles

    • Bronchioles: Finer and finer tubes

• Aveoli: Where gas exchange in mammals occurs

• Surfactant: Mixture of phospholipids and proteins, produced by air sacs, coat alveoli and reduces surface tension

42.6: Breathing ventilates the lungs

• Breathing: Process that ventillates the lungs, alternating inhalation and exhalation of air

• Positive Pressure Breathing: Inflating lungs with forced air flow, how amphibians breathe

• Negative Pressure Breathing: Pulling air into the lungs instead of pushing, used by mammals

  • Rib muscles and diaphragm contract, incoming and outgoing air mix and decrease efficiency

• Tidal Volume: Amount of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath, ~500 mL avg in resting humans

  • Vital Capacity: Tidal volume during max, ~3.4-4.8 L

• Residual Volume: Air that remains after a forced exhalation

• Inhalation takes energy, exhalation is passive

• Sensors detect pH of cerebrospinal fluid and adjust accordingly

42.7: Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases

1. During inhalation, fresh air mixes with air remaining in lungs

2. Mixture from aveoli has higher P_o2 than blood flowing through aveolar capillaries

   1. Net diffusion of O₂ from aveoli to blood

   2. Presence of P_co2 in aveoli higher than in capillaries means net diffusion CO₂ from blood to air

3. P_o2 and P_co2 match values for air in aveoli. Blood returns to heart and is pumped through systemic circuit

4. In systemic capillaries, net diffusion of O₂ out of blood, CO₂ in

5. Blood is returned to heart and pumped to lungs

6. Exchange occurs across aveolar capillaries, exhaled air enriched in CO₂, depleted of O₂

• Respiratory Pigments: Proteins, bind to O₂ and transport it, circulate with blood or hemolymph

• Bohr Shift: Low pH dereases affinity of hemoglobin for O₂

• Myoglobin: Oxygen storing protein

Chapter 43: The Immune System

43.1: In innate immunity, recognition and responserely on traits common to groups of pathogens

• Pathogen: Disease causing agent

• Immune System: Lets animal avoid or limit many infections

• Molecular Recognition: Specific binding of immune receptors to foreign molecules

• Innate Immunity: Set of immune defenses common to all animals

  • Lysozyme: enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls and acts as a chemical barrier against any pathogens ingeste with food

  • Body secretions make a hostile environment for pathogens and inhibit microbial entry

  • Toll-Like Receptor (TLR): Binds to fragment molecules characcteristic of a set of pathogens

  • Two main types of phagocytic cells

    • Neutrophils: Circulate bood, attracted by signals from infected tissues then engulf and destroy infecting pathogens

    • Macrophages: Larger phagoctic cells that engulf pathogens

• Dentritic Cells: Populate tissues that contact the environment, stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens that they engulf

• Eosinophils: Often found beneath an apithelium, defend against multicellular invaders (x. parasites)

• Natural Killer Cells: Circulate through the body, detect abnormal surface proteins and release chemicals that lead to cell death

• Mast Cells: Found in connective tissue, contribute to inflammatoryresponse

  • Inflammatory Response: Set of events triggered by signaling molecules released upon injury or infection

• Histamine: Signaling molecule at sites of damage, blood vessels dilate

• Interferons: Proteins that provide innate defense by interfering with viral infections

• Complement System: ~30 proteins in blood plasma which circulate in an inactive state, activated by substances on the surface of many pathogens

1. It both tries to be used to push the pus out, and also is secreted to prevent more from coming in

2. Not sure

3. Ok

43.2: In adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen specific recognition

• Adaptive Immunity: Set of molecular and cellular defense only among vertebraes

• Adaptive Immunity mostly relies on T and B cells, which are lymphocytes

  • Lymphocyte: Originate from stem cells in bone marrow, white blood cells, 3 types

    • T Cells: Mature lymphocytes that migrate to the thymus

      • Thymus: Organ in the thoracic cavity above the heart

    • B Cells: Mature lymphocytes that stay in the bone marrow

    • Natural Killer Cells in innate immunity remain in blood

• Antigen: Any substance that elicits either a B or T response

  • Antigen Receptor: Protein that binds a cell to an antigen

  • Epitope: Part of antigen that binds to an antigen receptor

• B cell antigen receptors are Y shaped proteins with four polypeptide chains, two heavy chains and two light chains, linked by disulfide bridges

• Antibody/Immunoglobulin (Ig): Secreted protein, soluble form of antigen receptor bycells resulting from binding of B antigen receptor to antigen

• Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): Host protein that displays an antigen fragment on the cell surface

• Effector Cells: Clones that take effect immediately against the antigen and any pathogens producing it

• Memory Cells: Remaining cells in the clone, give rise to effector cells if the same antigen is encountered again later

• Clonal Selection: Encounter with an antigen selects which lymphocyte will divide to produce a clonal population

• Primary Immune Response: Effector cells formed by clones of lymphocytes after an initial exposure to an antigen

• Secondary Immune Response: Response that is faster and of greater magnitude and more prolonged

43.3: Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and bodycells

• Humoral Immune Response: Protects blood and lymph by using antibodies to neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in body fluids

• Cell Mediated Immune Response: Specialized T cells destroy infected host cells

  • Both this and humoral can include primary and secondary immune response with memory cells enabling the secondary response

• Helper T Cells: Activates humoral and cell mediated immune responses

  • Two conditions

    1. Foreign molecule that can bind specifically to the antigen receptor of the helper T cell must be present

    2. Antigen must be desplayed on the surface of an antigen presenting cell

       • Antigen presenting cell can be dendritic, macrophage, or B cell

• B cells only present the antigen to which it specially binds

  • Single activated B cell gives rise to thousands of identical plasma cells which stop expressing antigen receptors and begin producing and secreting antibodies

• Cytotoxic T Cells: Use toxic proteins to kill cells infected by viruses or other intracellular pathogens before they fully mature

• Immunization: Use of antigens artificially introduced into the body to generate an adaptive response from the body and memory cell formation

  • Active Immunity: Defenses that arise when a pathogen infection or immunization prompts an immune response

  • Passive Immunity: Antibodies in the recipient are produced by another individual

    • ex. Pregnant female gets antibodies so the fetus does too

• Monoclonal Antibodies: Identical and specific for the same epitope (spot) on an antigen

43.4: Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease

• Allergens: Antigens with exaggerated responses

• Autoimmune Disease: Immune system is active against particular molecules of the body

• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): Attacks adaptive immune response and infects helper T cells

• Aquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS): Impairment in immune responses that leaves the body susceptible to infections and cencers that would be beatable for a healthy immune system

Chapter 44: Osmoregulation and Excretion

44.1: Osmoregulation balances the uptake and loss of water and solutes

• Osmoregulation: Process by which animals control solute concentrations and balance water gain and loss

• Excretion: Process for ridding the body of metabolic waste

• Osmolarity: Number of moles of solute per liter of solution

• Hyperosmotic: Higher concentration of solutes

• Hypoosmotic: Lower concentration of solutes

• Two ways for animals to maintain water balance

  • Osmoconformer: To be isoosmotic with its surroundings, marine animals

  • Osmoregulator: To control internal osmolarity independent of that of the external environment

• Anhydrobiosis: Animals enter a dormant state when their habitats dry up

44.2: An animal’s nitrogenous wastes reflect its phylogeny and habitat

• Ammonia: Toxic metabolite produced by dismantling of nitrogenous molecules, can only be excreted in large volumes of dilute solutions

• Urea: Product of energy consuming metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide in the liver

  • Higher energy cost

• Uric Acid: Relatively nontoxic, doesn’t readily dissolve, more energetically expensive than urea

  • Used by insects, land snails,and reptiles

44.3: Diverse excretory systems are variations on a tubular theme

• Filtration: Excretory tubule collects a filtrate from the blood, and water and solutes are forced by blood pressure across the membranes of a cluster of capillaries and into the excretory tubule

  • Filtrate: Water and small solutes, such as salts, sugars, amino acids, and nitrogenous wastes, which can cross the membrane

    • Converted into waste fluid by specific transport of materials

• Reabsorption: Transport epilithium finds useful molecules and water from filtrate and returns them to the body fluid

• Secretion: Other waste substances are extracted from body fluids and added to the contents of the excretory tubule

• Excretion: Altered filtrate leaves the body as urine

• Protonephridia: Network of dead end tubules that branch throughout the body

• Metanephridia: Exretory organs that collect fluid directly from the coelom in annelids

• Malpighian Tubules: Remove nitrogenous wastes and function in osmoregulation

• Kidney: Functions in both osmoregulation and excretion for transporting and storing urine

  • Urine produced by kidney → ureter (duct) → drain into urinary bladder → urethra

  • Outer renal cortex and inner renal medulla, both supplied with blood by renal arteries, drained by a renal vein. Excretory tubules carry and process a filtrate produced from blood entering the kidney

• Neurphrons: Functional units of the vertebrae kidney

  • Cortical Nephrons: Only reach a short distance into the medulla, 85% of nephrons

  • Juxtamedullar Nephrons: Other 15%, extend deep into the medulla

• Glomerulus: Ball of capillaries, + a single long tubule = a nephron

• Bowman’s Capsule: Cup-shaped swelling which surrounds the glomerous, blind end of the tubule

• Processing occurs as the filtrate passes through three major regions of the nephron

  • Proximal Tubule: First nephron segment after the glomerulus where reabsorption commences

  • Loop of Henle: Hairpin turn with descending limb and asecending limb

  • Distal Tubule: Short nephron segment, interposed between the macula densa and collecting duct

• Collecting Duct: Recieves processed filtrate from nephrons and transports it to the renal pelvis

• Peritubular Capillaries: Surround the proximal and distal tubules, branches of the efferent ateriole

• Vasa Recta: Branches that extend downward form it, hairpin shaped capillaries that serve the renal medulla

44.4: The nephron is organized for stepwise processing of blood filtrate

1. Proximal tubule. Reabsorption in proximal tubule is used for recapture of valuable nutrients from initial filtrate.

2. Descending limb of the loop of Henle. When leaving the proximal tubule, filtrate enters the loop of Henle. In the first portion of the loop (descending limb), water channels formed by aquaporins make transport freely permeable to water and the filtrate loses water and increases solute concentration

3. Ascending limb of the loop of Henle. The membrane is impermeable to water. There are two specialized regions, a thin segment near the loop tip and a thick one adjacent to the distal tubule.

   1. In the thick part, NaCl is moved out of the filtrate and into the interstitial fluid, and the filtrate is diluted. Loop of henle recovers water (descending) and salt(ascending) from the filtrate

4. Distal tubule. Regulates K⁺ and NaCl concntration in filtrate

5. Collecting duct. Processes filtrate into urine which is carried into the renal pelvis.

• Countercurrent Multipler Systems: Systems that expend energy to create concentration gradients.

  • In loop of Henle maintains gradient of salt concentration in kidney interior

44.5: Hormonal circuits link kidney function, water balance, and blood pressure

• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Activate membrane receptors on the surface of collecting duct cells and reduce urine volume

• Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS): Endocrine circuit, regulates kidney function, increases water and Na⁺ absorption when blood volume drops

  • Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA): Specialized tissue consisting of cells of and around afferent ateriole, used in RAAS

• Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP): Opposes the RAAS, inhibits the release of renin from JGA and inhibits NaCl absorption by collecting ducts, reduces aldosterone release from adrenal glands if blood volue and pressure increase

Chapter 45: Hormones and the Endocrine System

45.1: Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways

• Hormone: Secreted molecule that circulates throughout the body and stimulates specific cells

• Two basic systems for communication and regulation in the animal body

  • Endocrine System: Controls chemical signaling by hormones

  • Nervous System: Network of specialized cells, neurons, thatt transmit signals along dedicated pathways

• In endocrine signaling, hormones secreted by endocrine cells reach the target cells via the bloodstream

• Local Regulators: Molecules that act over short distances and reach their target cell through diffusion

• Paracrine Signaling: Target cells are near the secreting cell

• Autocrine Signaling: Secreting cells are the target cells

• Prostaglandins: Local regulator, modified fatty acid, that is produced throughout the body and have diverse functions

  • In immune system, promote inflammation and sensation of pain in response to injury

• Nitric Oxide (NO): Local regulator, gas, synthesized when level of blood oxygen falls

• Neurotransmitters: Diffuse a very short fistance and bind to receptors on target cells, molecules secreted by neurons, synaptic signaling

• Neurohormones: Diffuse from nerve cell endings into the bloodstream, secreted by neurosecretory cells

• Pheromones: Chemicals released into the external environment

• Binding of water soluble hormone to cell surface receptor protein triggers a response—either the activation of an enzyme, a change in the uptake/secretion of specific molecules, ro rearrangement of the cytoskeleton

  • Signal Transduction: Chain of events that converts the extracellular chemical signal to an intracellular response

  • Epinephrine/Adrenaline: Hormone that regulates many organs

• In lipid soluble hormone it activates the receptor which directly triggers the cell’s response, usually a change in gene expression

• Endocrine Glands: Groups of endocrine cells, secrete hormones into surrounding fluid

  • Exocrine Glands: Have ducts that carry secreted substances onto body surfaces or cavities

1. They trigger different responses and there are two recptor proteins used in lipids

2. Exocrine, since it goes into the environment

45.2: Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in hormone pathways

• Simple Endocrine Pathway: Endocrine cells respond directly to internal or external stimulus by secreting a particular hormone, which travels in the bloodstream to the target cells and receptors

• Simple Neuroendocrine Pathway: Stimulus recieved by sensory neuron and not endocrine tissue, which stimulates a neurosecretary cell, which secretes a neurohormone that diffuses in the bloodstream and travels to target cells

  • ex. Oxytocin

• Negative Feedback: Response reduced initial stimulus

• Positive Feedback: Reinforces a stimulus to drive a process to completion

• Hypothalamus: Coordination of endocrine signaling relies on this part of the brain, which recieves information from nerves and initiates neuroendocrine signaling

• Pituitary Gland: Gland located at the base of the hypothalamus

  • Posterior Pituitary: Extension of hypothalamus, hypothalamic axons that reach here secrete neurohormones from the hypothalamus

  • Anterior Pituitary: Endocrine gland that synthesizes and secretes hormones in response to hormones from the hypothalamus

• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Regulates kidney function, increases water retention in kidneys

• Prolactin: Stimulates milk production

• Thyroid Hormone: Regulates bioenergetics, helps maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tone, digestive and reproductive stuff

• Thyroid Gland: Organ in the neck with two lobes on the ventral surface of the trachaea

• Growth Hormone: Stimulates growth

1. Help produce milk for offspring which helps them bond ig?

2. Posterior is an extension, Anterior responds

45.3: Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli regulating homeostasis, development, and behavior

• Parathyroid Glands: Set of four small structures embedded in posterior surface of thyroid, regulate Ca²⁺ levels

  • Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Hormone released by parathyroid glands when blood Ca²⁺ levels fall below 10 mg

  • Calcitonin: Hormone that inhibits bone breakdown and enhances Ca²⁺ excretion

• Adrenal Gland: Made of adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla

• Norepinephrone/Noradrenaline: Neurotransmitter, catecholamine, “fight or flight” along with adrenaline

• In liver cells, adrenaline binds to a B type receptor in the plasma membrane, which activates protein kinase A which regulates enzymes of glycogen metabolism, and glucose is released into blood

  • In smooth muscle cells lining blood vessels supplying skeletal muscle, the same kinase is activated by the same receptor that inactivates a muscle specific enzyme which results in smooth muscle relaxation

  • In smooth muscle cells lining blood vessels of the intestines, adrenaline binds to an a type receptor, triggering a signaling pathway that involvs enzymes other than kinase A which causes smooth muscle contraction

• Glucocorticoids: Make more glucose available as fuel, promotes glucose synthesis from noncarbohydrate sources such as proteins

• Mineralocorticoids: Act principally in maintaining salt and water balance

• Testes synthesize androgens, main one being testosterone

• Estrogens (most important is estradiol) in females for development of reproductive system

• Progesterone: Involved in preparing and maintaining tissues of uterus to support development of embryo

• Melatoin: Regulates functions related to light and seasons

  • Pineal Gland: Produces melatonin, a small mass of tissue near the center of the brain

  • Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH): Secreted by anterior pituitary, controls hunger, metabolism, and skin coloration

Chapter 46: Animal Reproduction

46.1: Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom

• Asexual Reproduction: New individuals generated without the fusion of the egg and sperm

  • Fission: Splitting and seperation of a parent organism into two individuals of ~equal size

  • Fragmentation: Breaking of parent body into several pieces

  • Regeneration: Regrowth of lost body parts

    • ex. worms that split into several fragments, each regenerating into a complete worm (ew gross)

  • Parthenogenesis: Egg develops without being fertilized

• Sexual Reproduction: Fusion of haploid gametes forms ygote

  • Egg: Large and nonmotile, the female gamete

  • Sperm: Smaller and more motile, the male gamete

  • Hermaphroditism: Each individual has both male and female reproductive systems

    • Any two organisms can mate

• Ovulation: Production and release of mature eggs, midpoint of each cycle

• Sexual reproduction has a “twofold cost”, which means asexually, a female can produce 2x as many offspring as the female that reproduces sexually. Not sure what sexual reproduction’s benefit is that counteracts its twofold cost. Possibly genetic variation is higher.

1. Asexual reproduction can produce twice as many offspring and they would be all females

2. Not too sure

3. No, since it is still sexual reproduction and hence won’t result in a clone

4. Not sure

46.2: Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species

• Fertilization: Union of sperm and egg, can be internal or external

  • External fertilization, female releases eggs into environment and male finds and fertilizes them

    • Must have moist environment

    • Spawning happens in certain species, where animals clustered in the same area release their gametes at the same time

  • Internal fertilization, sperm is deposited in or near the female reproductive tract

    • Allows sperm to reach an egg even when external environment is dry

      • Requires sophisticated and compatible reproductive systems, plus cooperative behavior

• Pheromones are used no matter what type of fertilization it is

• Gonads: Organs that produce gametes, found in many but not all animals

• Spermathecae: Sacs in which sperm is kept alive and stored (sometimes a year or more), in many insect species, and females fertilize their own eggs only in response to the right stimuli

• Cloaca: Digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems’ common opening, in many nonmammalian vertebrates, prob present in ancestors of all vertebrates

1. Since the fertilization is immediate and there is no risk of the eggs being eaten or something

2. Spawning in external environments and going all at once, sophisticated reproductive systems in internal

3. I’ll go back later or smth

46.3: Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes

• Testes: Male gonads, must be cooler than the rest of the body to produce sperm

• Seminiferous Tubules: Where testes produce sperm, highly coiled tubes

• Scrotum: Fold of the body wall, keeps the testes (2 degrees celcius) cooler than the body temperature

• Seminiferous tubules → coiled duct of epididymis (takes about 3 weeks for sperm to travel through the duct, and in the process they become matured and more motile)

• Ejaculation: Sperm propelled from each epididymis through the vans deferenes

  • Vans Deferens: Extends around and behind the urinary bladder and joins a duct from the seminal vesicle to form an ejaculatory duct, which open into the urethra

    • Urethra: Outlet tube for excretory system and reproductive system

• Semen: Fluid that is ejaculated, secretions produced by three accesory glands + semen

  • Seminal Vesicles: 2 contribute ~60% the volume of semen

  • Prostate Gland: Secretes products directly into urethra, has anticoagulant enzymes and citrate, a sperm nutrient

  • Bulbuorethral Glands: Pair of small glands along the urethra below the prostate, secrete clear mucus that nutralizes acidic urine in the urethra

• Penis: Urethra + three cylinders of spongey erectile tissue, which fill with blood from the arteries when aroused

• Glans: Head of the penis with a sensitive and thin outer layer, covered by the prepuce (foreskin)

• Female has clitoris and two sets of labia

• Female gonads are ovaries. The outer layer of each one is packed with follicles, each with an oocyte (partially developed egg) surrounded by support cells

• Ociduct/Fallopian Tube: From uterus to a funnel like opening at each ovary

  • Cilia in the oviduct pushes the egg down to the uterus in wave like motions

• Uterus/Womb: Thick, muscular organ that can expand during pregnancy

  • Endometrium: Lining of the uterus, richly supplied with blood vessels

  • Cervix: Neck of the uterus, opens into the vagina

    • Vagina: Muscular but elastic chamber that is the site for insertion of penis and deposition of sperm during copulation, as well as the birth canal where a baby is born

      • Vulva: External female vagina

• Labia Majora: Enclose and protect the rest of the vulva, thick, fatty ridges

• Labia Minora: Slender skin folds bordering the cavity of the vaginal and urethra openings

• Clitoris: Erectile tissue supporting a round glans covered by the prepuse

• Mammary Glands: Present in both sexes, produce milk only in females

• Gametogenesis: Production of gametes

  • Spermatogenesis: Production of sperm

    • Spermatogonia: In mature testes, stem cells divide mitotically to form them, and they generate spermatocytes by mitosis

    • Acrosome: Specialized vesicle with enzymes to help the sperm penetrate an egg

  

  • Oogenesis: Production of eggs

    • Oogonia: Divide by mitosis to form the cells that begin meiosis

      • Primary Oocytes: Cells that begin meiosis but are stopped at prophase I before birth, reside within small follicles

      • Secondary Oocytes: Arrested in metaphase II, released at ovulation

    • Corpus Lutem: Develops from ruptured follicle left behind after ovulation, secretes estradiol and progesterone which maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy

46.4: The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates reproduction in mammals

• Hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) which directs secretion of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), tropic hormones that regulate activity of endocrine cells or glands

  • Support gametogenesis

• Gonads produce and secrete three major types of steroid sex hormones: Adrogens (mostly testosterone), estrogens (mostly estradiol), and progesterone. Concentrations vary between the genders

• In spermatogytis, FSH stimulates sertoli cells to nourish developing sperm, LH causes Leydig cells to produce testosterone and other androgens

  • Leydig cells also secrete small quantities of other hormones and local regulators like oxytocin, renin, angiotensin, corticotropin releasing factor, growth factors, and prostaglandins

• Ovarian Cycle: Cyclic events in the ovary, once per cycle a folicle matures and an oocyte is released

  • Uterine Cycle: Changes in the uterus

• Menstrual Cycle: Endometrium thickens and develops a rich blood supply before being shed through the cervix and vagina if pregnancy doesn’t occur

  • Menstruation: Cyclic shedding of blood rich endometrium from the uterus in a flow through the cervix to the vagina

    • 28 days average but can be 20 to 40

• In females, hypothalamus releases GnRH and anterior pituitary secretes FSH and LH, stimulate follicle growth aided by LH which start to make estadiol

  • Follicular phase days 0-14, estradiol concentration slowly rises, follicles grow and oocytes mature and LH level rises and peaks at day 13

    • Proliferative phase days 6-14

  • Luteal phase days 15-28, remaining follicular tissue forms corpus luteum which secretes progesterone and estradiol, which exert negative feedback on the hypothalamus and pituitary and reduces LH and FSH secretion

    • Secretory phase days 15-28

• Endometrosis: Some cells of uterine lining migrate to abdominal location that is ectopic (abnormal)

• Menopause: After about 500 cycles, ovaries lose responsiveness to FSH and LH so less estradiol production

• Estrous Cycle: In animals without menstrual cycles, cyclic changes in uterus control sexual receptivity. They only have intercourse around their cycle

• Four phase of sexual response cycle

  • Excitement, vagina and penis are prepared for coitus (intercourse). Vagina is lubricated

  • Plateau, outer third of vagina is vasocongested and inner two third slightly expands to recieve sperm. Breathing quickens and heart rate rises

  • Orgasm when rhythmic contractions of reproductive structures

    • In males, two stages.

      • First is emission when the semen is forced into the urethra

      • Expulsion/ejaculation is when urethra contracts and semen is expelled

    • In females, uterus and outer vagina contract, inner two thirds doesn’t

46.5: In placental mammals, an embryo develops fully within the mother’s uterus

• Conception: Fertilization in humans

• Zygote behins cleavage cell divisions 24 hours after fertilization, after 4 days produces a blastocyst

  • Blastocyst: Sphere of cells surounding a central cavity

• Few days later embryo implants into the endometrium of the uterus

• Pregnancy/Gestation: Carrying 1+ embryos in the uterus

  • Averages 266 days from fertilization

• In first trimester, implated embryo secretes hormones to signal its presence and regulate the mother’s reproductive system

  • During first 2-4 weeks embryo gets nutrients directly from the endometrium

  • Trophoblast: Outer layer of the blastocyst

    • During first 2-4 weeks grows outward and mingles with the endometrium, eventually helping form the placenta

  • Organogenesis: Development of body organs, mostly in first trimester

    • Heart begins beating by weeka 4

      • Can be detected at 8-10, at 8 all major structures are present in their basic forms, the embryo is a fetus. Well diffrentiated but only 5 cm long

• Labor has three stages

  1. Thinning and opening up of the cervix

  2. Expulsion/delivery of the baby

  3. Delivery of the placenta

• Contraception: Deliberate prevention of pregnancy

  • Birth Control Pills: Hormonal contraceptives with pregnancy rates <1%

  • Sterilization

    • Tubal Ligation: Sealing shut/tying off a section of each oviduct to prevent eggs from traveling into the uterus

    • Vasectomy: Cutting and typing off each vans deferens so sperm can’t enter the urethra

  • Abortion: Termination of pregnancy

• In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): Combining oocytes and sperm in the laboratory

Chapter 47: Animal Development

47.1: Fertilization and cleavage initiate embryonic development

• Model Organisms: Species chosen for ease that they can be studied

• Sea Urchin Fertilization

  • When a sperm head contacts the egg surface, an acrosomal reaction is triggered

    • Hydrolytic enzymes are discharged from the acrosome (specialized vesicle at the top of the sperm) which partially digest the jelly coat and allow the sperm to penetrate the jelly coat

    • Sperm nucleus enters egg cytoplasm, and ion channels open in the egg’s plasma membrane, where sodium ions diffuse in and cause depolarization

    • Additional sperm can no longer fuse with it, preventing polysperny (>1 sperm nuclei into the egg)

  • Ca²⁺ activates the egg

• Sperm must travel through a layer of follicle cells before reaching the zona pellucida (extracellular matrix of egg)

• Cleavage: Series of rapid cell divisions during early development

  • Solves the problem that a sing;e nucleus in a newly fertiized egg has too little DNA to produe the amount of mRNA to meet the cell’s need for new proteins

    • Blastomeres: Smaller cells that make up cytoplasm of the large fertilized egg

• Blastula: Hollow ball of cells surrounding the blastocoel, from first to

  • Bastocoel: Fluid filled cavity

• Yolk: Stored nutrients concentrated towards the vegetal pole, away from the animal pole

47.2: Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival

• Morphogenesis: Processes by which the animal body takes shape, occurs over the last two stages of embryonic development

  • During gastrulation, a set of cells near the surface moves to an interior location, establishing cell layers and a primitive digestive tube

  • Further transformation happens in oranogenesis

• Germ Layers: Cell layers produced collectively

• In late gastrula, ectoderm forms the outer layer, endoderm forms the lining of the digestive tract

• Mesoderm: Third germ layer that forms between the ectoderm and endoderm

• Human eggs are pretty small. Development in human embryos is as follows

  1. Embryo is a blastocyst, with a group of cells, the inner cell mass, clustered at one end of the cavity, which develop into the embryo proper

  2. Trophoblast (outer epithelium of the blastocyst) initiates implantation of the embryo

  3. Trophoblast continues to expand into the endometrium and four new extraembryonic membranes appear

     1. Amnion layer

     2. Chorion layer

     3. Yolk sac layer

     4. Allantois layer

  4. Embryonic germ layers have formed. Extraembryonic mesoderm and four distinct extraembryonic membranes now surround the embryo

• Amniotes: Mammals and reptiles including birds

• Organs of animal body develop from specific portions of embryonic germ layers

• Organogenesis in vertebrates have many early events

  • Notochord: Rod that extends along the dorsal side of chordate embryo, formed by cells of dorsal mesoderm

  

  • Neural Tube: Developed from infolding of ectodermal neural plate

• Induction: Process in which a group of cells or tissues influences development of another group through close range interactions

• 2 sets of cells that develop near the vertebrate neural tube undergo long range migration

  • Neural Crest: Set of cells, develops along borders where neural tube pinches off from the ectoderm

  • Somites: Blocks, groups of mesodermal cells lateral to the notochord seperate into them

• Convergent Extension: Rearrangement that causes a sheet of cells to become narrower while it becomes longer, occurs in gastrulation

47.3: Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals regulate cell fate

• Determination: Process by which a cell or group of cells becomes committed to a particular fate

• Diffrentiation: Resulting specialization in structure and function of determination

• Fate Maps: Diagrams showing structures arising from each region of an embryo

• Totipotent: Blastomeres that can develop into all the different cell types of a species

• Pattern Formation: Process governing arrangement of organs and tissues in their characteristic places

  • Positional Information: Molecular cues that control pattern formation

    • In the form of molecules secreted by certain cells such as the dorsal lip of the blastopore in the amphibian gastrula, apical extodermal ridge, and zone of polarizing activity in the vertebrate limb bud

      • Apical Ectodermal Ridge (AER): Thickened area of ectoderm at the tip of the bud

      • Zone of Polarizing Activity (ZPA): Specialized block of mesodermal tissye

Chapter 48: Neurons, Synapses, and Signaling

48.1: Neuron structure and organization reflect function in information transfer

• Neuron: Nerve cell that can recieve and transmit information

  • Cell Body: Where most of the neuron’s organelles are located

  • Dendrites: Stud the cell body, highly branched extensions, recieve signals from other neurons

  • Axon: Extension that transmits signals to other cells, longer than dendrites, one per neuron

  • Synapse: Junction between two cells

• Neurotransmitter: Pass information from transmitting neuron to the recieving cell

• Sensory Neuron: Transmit info about external stimuli and internal conditions

• Interneurons: Form local circuits connecting neurons in the brain or ganglia, integrate sensory input

• Motor Neurons: Transmit signals to muscle cells and cause them to contract

• Nerves: Bundles of neurons grouped together

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Organized system of neurons that carry out sorting, processing, and integration

  • May include a brain or ganglia (simpler clusters)

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Neurons that carry information in and out of the CNS

  • Glia: Supporting cells required in both PNS and CNS

1. Axons are longer and transmit signals to other cells instead of other neurons

2. Sensory neurons notice that you’ve been called so they tell the interneurons to tell the brain which tell the motor neurons to turn your head

3. It can reach more places?

48.2: Ion pumps and ion channels establish the resting potential of a neuron

• Membrane Potential: Charge difference across the plasma membrane

  • Resting Potential: Membrane potential of a resting neuron (one that’s not sending a signal)

• Sodium Potassium Pump: Transports 3 Na⁺ out of the cell for every 2 K⁺ that are pumped in, net positive charge

  • Very slow so the difference in membrane potential is pretty small

• Ion Channels: Pores formed by clusters of specialied proteins that span the membrane

  • Ions move rapidly through them so the resulting current makes a membrane potential, and is either net positive or negative

• Equilibrium Potential (E_ion): Magnitude of membrane voltage at equilibrium for an ion

  • Nernst Equation: Formula for E_ion of a membrane permeable to a single type of ion

1. Active transport?

2. More permeable since there is more of the positive ions coming in

48.3: Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons

• Gated Ion Channels: Ion channels in neurons that open or close in response to stimuli

  • Alters membrane’s permeability to particular ions

• Voltage Gated Ion Channel: Channel that opens or closes in response to a shift in the voltage across the plasma membrane of the neuron

• Hyperpolarization: Change in membrane potential that makes the inside of the membrane more negative

• Depolarization: Change in membrane potential that makes the inside of the membrane less negative

• Graded Potential: Shift in membrane potential in response to hyperpolarization or depolarization, induce small electrical current that dissipates as it flows along the membrane

• Action Potential: If depolarization shifts membrane potential a lot, there is a massive change in membrane voltage

• Threshold: If depolarization increases membrane potential to this level, voltage gated sodium channels open and there is further depolarization

• How do voltage gated channels shape action potential?

  1. At resting potential, most voltage gated sodium channels are closed, some potassium channels are open

  2. When stimulus depolarizes the membrane, some gated sodium channels open and more Na⁺ diffuses into the cell

  3. Positive feedback rapidly brings to membrane close to the equilibrium potential of Na, aka the rising phase

  4. Two events prevent membrane potential from reaching the equilibrium in the falling phase, which brings the membrane potential back to equilibrium potential of K

     1. Voltage gated sodium channels inactivate soon after opening

     2. Most voltage gated potassium channels open

  5. In the undershoot, membrane is more permeable to K⁺ than at rest and membrane potential is closer to equillibrium potential of K⁺ than at resting potential, but it eventually returns to resting potential

• Sodium ions don’t flow once inactivation occurs even though channels are “open”, and this happens during falling phase and early undershoot

• Refractory Period: “Downtime” when second action potential can’t be initiated because sodium channels are inactive

• Myelin Sheath: Electrical insulation that surrounds vertebrae axons

  • Produced by glia

    • Ogilodendrocytes: Glia in the CNS

    • Schwann Cells: Glia in the PNS

• Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath

• Saltatory Conduction: Action potential skips from node to node

48.4: Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses

• Electrical Synapses: Contain gap junctions that allow electrical current to flow between neurons

• Chemical Synapses: Rely on the release of a chemical neurotransmitter by the presynaptic neuron to transfer information

  • Presynaptic Neuron: Synthesizes neurotransmitter at each synaptic terminal and packages it in synaptic vesicles (Membrane enclosed compartments)

• Synaptic Cleft: Gap that seperates presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic cell

• Ligand Gated Ion Channel/Ionotropic Receptor: Clustered in mebrane of postsynaptic cell, directly opposite the synaptic terminal

  • Binding of the neurotransmitter to a particular part of the receptor opens the channel

    • Postsynaptic Potential: Graded potential in the postsynaptic cell

• Excititory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP): When ligand gated ion channels are permeable to both K⁺ and Na⁺ causing membrane potential to polarize to a midway equillibrium value

• Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP): When ligand gated ion channels are selectively permeable only for K⁺ or Cl^- so the postsynaptic membrane hyperpolarizes

• Summation: Individual postsynaptic potentials combine to produce a bigger postsynaptic potential

  • Temporal Summation: Effects of impulses received at the same place can add up if the impulses are received in close temporal succession

    • ex. two ESPS happen at a synapse in rapid succession, and the second ESPS arises before the postsynaptic membrane potential returns to its resting value

  • Spatial Summation: Stimuli are applied at the same time, but in different areas, with a cumulative effect upon membrane potential

    • ex. synapses are active on the same postsynaptic neuron, and the ESPS add together

• When neurotransmitter is not part of an ion channel, it binds to a metabotropic receptor and activates a signal transduction pathway in the postsynaptic cell

  • Metabotropic Receptors: G protein coupled receptors

• Neuropeptides: Relatively short chains of amino acids which act as neurotransmitters that operate via metabotropic receptors

• Endorphins: Neuropeptides that act as natural anagesics and decrease pain perception

Chapter 49: Nervous Systems

49.1: Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells

• Nerves: Axons of multiple neurons bundled together

• Cephalization: Cluster of sensory neurons and interneurons at the front end of the bodyin bilaterally symmetrical animals

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Neurons that carry out integration

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Neurons that carry information into and out of the CNS

• Ganglia: Segmentally arranged clusters of neurons that act as relay points in transmitting information

• Brain and spinal cord have gray and white matter

  • Gray Matter: Neuron cell bodies

  • White Matter: Bundled axons, the outer layer of the spinal cord and in the interior of the brain

• Reflexes: Body’s automatic responses to certain stimuli

• PNS has two components, the motor and autonomic system

  • Motor System: Its neurons carru signals to skeletal muscles

  • Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary regulation of smooth and cardiac muscles

• Entric Nervous System: Network of neurons with direct control over digestive tract, pancreas, and galbladder

• Sympathetic Division: Activation corresponds to arousal and energy generation, fight or flight

  • Exit CNS midway along the spinal cord and form sunapses in ganglia located just outside the spinal cord

• Parasympathetic Division: Calming and returning to self maintanence functions, rest and digest

  • Exit CNS at the base of the brain or spinal cord, form synapses in anglia near an internal organ

• Pathway for information flow typically involes a pre and post gangliogonic neuron in both divisions

  • Preganglionic Neurons: Cell bodies in the CNS, release acetylcholine

  • Postganglionic Neurons: In parasympathetic, releas acetylcholine, in sympathetic, release norepinephrine

  • Nervous systems of certebrates and most invertebrates have neurons and glia/glial cells

1. Sympathetic, since its fight or flight

49.2: The vertebrae brain is regionally specialized

• Forebrain: Activities with processing and olfactory (smells), regulation of sleep, learning, and complex processing. Contains olfactory bulb and cerebrum

• Midbrain: Routing of sensory input

• Hindbrain: Controls involuntary activities

• As an embryo develops there are three anterior bulges, the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

  • Brainstem: Stalk that joins with the spinal cord at the base of the brain, midbrain and portions of the hindbrain, pons and medulla oblongata, recieves and integrates several types of sensory info and sends it to specific regions of the forebrain

    • Pons: Transmits signals between forebrain and cerebellum

    • Medulla Oblongata: Connection between brainstem and spinal cord, regulates blood pressure, heart rate, etc.

  • Cerebellum: Behind the brainstem, controls movement and balance and helps in learning and remembering motor skills

  • Cerebrum: Develops from telencephalon (from forebrain), controls skeletal muscle contraption and learning, emotion, memory, and perception

    • Two hemispheres, left and right

    • Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of cerebrum, vital for perception, voluntary movement, and learning

    • Corpus Callosum: Thick band of axons, enables right and left cerebral cortices to communicate

  

  • Diencephalon: Gives rise to thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus

    • Thalamus: Main input center for sensory information going to the cerebrum

    • Hypothalamus: Control center, the body’s thermostat and biological clock

      • Biological Clock: Molecular mechanism that directs periodic gene expression and cellular activity

• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): Clustered neurons in the hypothalamus that coordinate circadian rhythms

• Amygdala: Almond shaped brain strucutre near the base of the cerebrum for storage and recall of emotional memory

1. Cerebellum?

2. Frontal lobe

49.3: The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions

• In the cerebral cortex, there are sensory areas to recieve and process sensory info, association areas to integrate the info, and motor areas to transmit instructions to other parts of the body

• Four major lobes, frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal

  • Frontal lobe injuries damage decision making and emotional responses but intellect and memory are fine

    • Same thing when connection between prefrontal cortex and limbic system is surgically severed (frontal lobotomy)

• Somatosensory receptors provide info about touch, pain, pressure, temp, and position of muscles and limbs, directed via the thalamus to primary sensory areas within brain lobes and to the prefrontal cortex to plan movement

• Lateralization: Difference in function between two hemispheres of brain

1. When they can no longer perform a function because of an injury to a certain area then we know that the area must be for the function

2. Broca area, think about what you want to say then form speech. Wernicke’s area, recognize what they are saying and then comprehend it

49.4: Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning

• Neuromal Plasticity: Capacity for nervous system to be remodeled and connects between neurons to be modified in the CNS

  • Most occurs at synapses

• In memory, storage of information is in the cerebral cortex

  • Short Term Memory: Holds information for a short time and then is released if it becomes irrelevant

    • Information accessed via temporary links formed in the hippocampus

  • Long Term Memory: Long term knowledge

    • Links in hippocampus are replaced by connectons within the cerebral cortex

      • Hippocampus is responsible for aquiring long term memory but not to maintain it

• Long Term Potentation (LTP): Lasting increase in the strength of synaptic transmission

  • Presynaptic neuron releases excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, and involves two types of glutamate receptors, NMDA or AMPA

1. Information moving from short term to long term memory and long term potentation

2. I don’t understand the question

49.5: Many nervous system disorders can now be explained in molecular terms

• Schizophrenia: Psychotic episodes where patients have a distorted sense of reality, affects neuronal pathways that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter

• Major Depressive Disorder: Periods where once enjoyable activities provide no pleasure

• Bipolar Disorder: Extreme swings of mood

• Alzheimers and Parkinsons are neurodegenerative

Chapter 50: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

50.1: Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system

• Sensory Reception: First step of a sensory pathway, the detection of a stimulus by specialized sensory cells

  • Sensory cell is either a neuron or cell that regulates a neuron

  • Sensory Receptor: Sensory cell or organ

  • Result of detecting any stimuli is to open or close ion channels

• Receptor Potential: Change in membrane potential from sensed stimulus

  • Size increases with intensity of stimulus

  • Usually sensory neurons spontaneously generate action potentials at a low rate, and alters how often action potentials are produced

• Sensory Transduction: Conversion of stimulus to receptor potential

• Integration begins when information is recieved

• Perception: Generated when action potentials reach the brain via afferent (facing inwards) neurons and are processed by circuits of neurons

• Two types of mofidication of transduction of stimuli by sensory receptors, amplification and adaptation

  • Amplification: Strengthening of a sensory signal during transduction

  • Sensory Adaptation: Decrease in responsiveness of receptors

• Mechanoreceptors: Sense physical deformation caused by forms of mechanical energy, usually ion channels that are linked to structures that extend outside the cell (ex. cilia/hairs) and are anchored to internal cell structures

• Chemoreceptors: Monitor internal environment, two broad categories

  • Transmit info about overall solute concentration or respond to specific molecules in body fluids

  • Detect stimuli in their diet and environment

• Electromagnetic Receptor: Detects a form of electromagnetic energy (light, electricity, magnetism)

• Thermoreceptors: Detect heat and cold

• Nocireceptors/Pain Receptors: Detect stimuli that reflect harmful conditions (ex. extreme pressure or temperature) and trigger defensive reflexes

1. Mechanoreceptors

2. Pain receptors tell us to stop

3. Electromagnetically

50.2: In hearing and equillibrium, mechanoreceptors detect moving fluid or settling particles

• Statocysts: Organs that sense gravity and maintain equilibrium

  • Statoliths: Granules formed by grains of sand or other dense materials which sit in a chamber lined with cilated cells

• Outer ear has external pinna and auditory canal → tympanic membrane (eardrum) which seperates the outer ear from the middle ear

  • In the middle ear there are three small bones, the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup) which transmit vibrations to the oval window (membrane beneath the stapes)

  • Middle ear opens into the Eustachian tube which connects to the pharynx

  • Inner Ear: Consists of fluid filled chambers including semicircular canals (equilibrium) and cochlea(bony chamber involved in hearing with two large canals)

• Organ of Corti: Contains mechanoreceptors of the ear, the base is the basilar membrane

• Hair Cells: Sensory cells with hairlike projections that we use to detect motion

• In mammals sound goes eardrum → bones of the middle ear → oval window → fluid in cochlea of the inner ear, pressure waves vibrate basilar membrane and depolarize hair cells and trigger action potententials that travel via the auditory nerve to the brain

50.3: The diverse visual receptors of animals depend on light absorbing pigments

• Phororeceptors: Sensory cells with light absorbing pigment molecules, in diverse light detectors

• Most animals have light detecting organs with photoreceotirs

• Compound Eyes: Arthropods’ visual organ with up to several thousand ommatida

  • Ommatidia: Light detectors

• Single Lens Eyes: Have a small opening (pupil) where light enters and the iris expands or contracts and changes the diameter of the pupil to let in more or less light. Kind of like a camera

• Human eyes are surrounded by the conjunctiva (a mucous membrane), the sclera (a connective tissue) and the choroid

  • Sclera forms the transparent cornea

  • Chroid forms the colored iris

• Inside the choroid, the neurons and photoreceptors of the retina form the innermost layers of the eyeball

• Lens: Transparent disk of protein, divides the eye into two cavities

  • Aqueous Humor: Clear watery substance in front of the lens

  • Vitreous Humor: Jellylike substance behind the lens

• Bipolar cells in the retina recieve information from rods and cones, and each ganglion cell gathers input from them. Horizontal and amacrine cells integrate information across the retina

  • Rods: Sensitive to light

  • Cones: Provide color vision

• Vertebrate visual pigments have a retinal bound to an opsin

  • Retinal: Light absorbing derivative of vitamin A

  • Opsin: Membrane protein

• Rhodopsin: Visual pigment of rods

• Absorption of light by retinal triggers a signal transduction pathway that hyperpolarizes the receptors and makes them release less neurotransmitter

  • Synapses transmit info from photoreceptors to cells that integrate info and convey it to the brain along axons that form the optic nerve

50.4: The senses of taste and smell rely on similar sets of sensory receptors

• Gustation: Sense of taste

  • Tastants: In terrestial animals the the presence of these chemicals in a solution dictate taste

• Olfaction: Sense of smell

  • Odorants: In terrestial animals the the presence of these chemicals in the air dictate smell

• Taste Buds: Receptor cells for taste in mammals, scattered in several areas of the tongue and mouth

  • Between five tastes, sweet, umami, and bitter each require 1+ genes encoding a GPCR

    • One type of sweet and one type of umami receptor

    • 30+ bitter receptors

• When an odorant diffuses into the cilia (that extends into the layer of mucus coating the nasal cavity), it binds to a specific GPCR protein, an olfactory receptor (OR) on the plasma membrane of the olfactory cilia

  • This causes signal transdduction which produces cyclic AMP

    • In olfactory cells, cyclic AMP opens channels in the plasma membrane which leads to depolarization and generates action potentials

50.5: The physical interaction of protein filaments is required for muscle function

• Muscle contraction relies on interaction between thick and thin filaments

  • Thin Filaments: Made of globular protein actin, two strands of polymerized actin are coiled around one another

  • Thick Filaments: Staggered arrays of myosin molecules

• Skeletal Muscle: Moves bones and body, has a bundle of long fibers running along the length of the muscle, each fiber being a cell

  • In the cells there are multiple nuclei derived from the embryonic cells that fused to form the fiber

• Myofibrils: Surround the nuclei derived from embryonic cells, consist of thick and thin filaments

• Sacromeres: Basic contractile units of skeletal muscle, make up microfibrils in muscle fibers

• Sliding Filament Model: Thin and thick filaments ratchet past each other, powered by myosin molecules

  • Each myosin molecule has a long tail and globular head. Tail binds with tails of other myosin molecules, head can bind ATP

    • Hydrolysis of ATP cnverts myosin to a high energy form that bins to actin

• In a muscle fiber at rest, tropomyosin and troponin complex are bound to actin strands of thin filaments

  • Tropomyosin: Regulatory protein

  • Troponin Complex: Set of additional regulatory proteins

• Motor neurons cause muscle contraction in a long process triggering movement of Ca²⁺ into the cytosol of muscle cells

  1. Arrival of action potential at the synaptic terminal of a motor neuron causes release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine

  2. Binding of acetylecholine to receptors on the muscle fiber leads to depolarization that initiates an action potential

  3. Within the muscle fiber, action potential spreads deep into the interior, following transverse (T) tubules(infoldings of the plasma membrane)

  4. These make close contact with the sacroplasmic reticulum (SR) (a specialized endoplasmic reticulum).

  5. As action potential spreads along the T tubules, it triggers changes in the SR which opens Ca²⁺ channels

  6. Calcium ions stored in the interior of the SR flow through open channels in the cytosol and bind to the troponin complex

  7. This initiates the muscle fiber contraction

  8. Relaxation starts as proteins pump Ca²⁺ back into the SR from the cytosol

  9. When Ca²⁺ concentration drops to a low level, regulatory proteins bound to the thin filament shift back to their starting position

  10. This once again blocks the myosin binding sites

• Motor Unit: Single motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it controls

• Tetanus: Rate of stimulation is so high that muscle fiber can’t relax between stimuli and twitches fuse into a sustained contraction

• Myoglobin: Oxygen sorting protein

• Fast-Twitch Fibers: Develop tension 2-3 times faster than slow twitch fibers, enabling brief, powerful contraptions

  • Slow fibers pump Ca²⁺ slower so it stays in the cytosol longer and a muscle twitch lasts about 5x as long

• Cardiac Muscle: Only found in the heart and is striated, some can initiate rhythmic depolarization and contraction

• Smooth Muscle: Found in walls of hollow organs such as vessels and tracts of circulatory, digestive, and reproductive systems. No striations

50.6: Skeletal systems transform muscle contraction into locomotion

• Hydrostatic Skeleton: Fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment

  • Main type of skeleton in most cndarians, flatworms, nermatodes, and annelids

• Exoskeleton: Hard covering deposited on animal’s surface

  • 30-50% of arthropod cuticle consists of chitin

• Endoskeleton: Hardened internal skeleton buried within soft tissues

• Locomotion: Active travel from place to place

Chapter 51: Animal Behavior

51.1: Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simpe and complex behaviors

• Behavior: Action carried out by muscles under control of the nervous system

  • Proximate causation is how a behavior occurs or is modified

  • Ultimate causation is why a behavior occurs in the context of natural selection

• Behavioral Ecology: Study of ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior

• Fixed Action Pattern: Sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus

  • Sign Stimulus: Exernal trigger for a fixed action pattern

• Signal: Stimulus transmitted from one organism to another

• Communication: Transmission and reception of signals between animals

• Pheromones: Chemical substances released by animals that communicate through odors or tastes, often relate to reproductive behavior

51.2: Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior

• Innate Behavior: Behavior that is developmentally fixed this way

• Learning: Modification of behavior as a result of specific experiences

• Imprinting: Establishment of long lasting behavioral response to a certain individual or object

  • Sensitive Period: Only time period when imprinting can take place

• Spatial Learning: Establishment of memory that reflects the environment’s spatial structure

• Cognitive Map: Representation in animal’s nervous system of spatial relationships between objects in its surroundings

• Associative Learning: Ability to associate one environmental feature with another

• Cognition: Process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgement

• Problem Solving: Cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from one condition to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles

• Social Learning: Learning through observing and interpreting behaviors

• Culture: System of information transfer through social learning or teaching that influences behavior of individuals in a population

51.3: Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain diverse behaviors

• Optimal Foraging Model: Natural selection should favor a foraging behavior that minimizes the cost of foraging and maximizes the benefits

• Some mates are monogamous some are polygamous

• Mate Choice Copying: Behavior where individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others

• Game Theory: Alternative strategies in situations where ooutcome depends on strategies of individuals involved

51.4: Genetic analyses and the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying the evolution of behavior

• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)/Vasopressin: Peptide released during mating and binds to a specific receptor in the central nervous system

• Altruism: Behavior that reduces an animal’s fitness but increases fitness of other individuals in the population

• Inclusive Fitness: Total effect an individual has on proliterating its genes by producing its own offspring and providing aid that enables other close relatives to produce offspring

• Hamilton’s Rule: Natural selection favors altruism when the benefit exceeds the cost

  • rB > C

    • C, the cost, is how many fewer offspring the altruist produces

    • B is the average number of extra offspring for the recipient

    • Coefficient of Relatedness: Fraction of genes that, on average, are shared, r

• Kin Selection: Natural selection that favors altruism by enhancing reproductive success of relatives

• Reciprocal Altruism: Altruism that occurs between unrelated humans