APUSH Period 3

1. What was the French and Indian War, and when did it occur?

• The French and Indian War was a conflict fought between British and French forces in North America, along with their respective Native American allies. It took place from 1754 to 1763 and was part of a larger global conflict known as the Seven Years' War.

2. Why is it called the "French and Indian War"?

• The war is called the "French and Indian War" because the British fought against both the French and many Native American tribes allied with the French. This name reflects the British perspective of the conflict.

3. What was the main cause of the French and Indian War?

• The main cause of the war was territorial disputes between the British and French over the Ohio River Valley. Both empires wanted control over this area for its valuable resources and strategic advantages in expanding their colonies.

4. How was the French and Indian War part of a larger conflict?

• The French and Indian War was the North American theater of the Seven Years' War, a larger global conflict between Britain and France (and their allies) fought over colonial territories, trade dominance, and influence across Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

5. Which Native American tribes allied with the French, and why?

• Tribes such as the Huron, Ottawa, and Algonquin allied with the French. Many Native Americans viewed the French as less of a threat to their lands and lifestyle compared to British settlers, who were more aggressive in clearing land for settlements.

6. How did the British gain the upper hand in the war?

• The British gained the upper hand due to their superior resources and reinforcements from Britain. Key victories, like the capture of Quebec in 1759, shifted momentum in Britain’s favor, eventually leading to French surrender.

7. What was the Treaty of Paris (1763), and how did it affect North America?

• The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1763, ended the French and Indian War. France ceded its territories in Canada and lands east of the Mississippi River to Britain, marking a significant expansion of British territorial claims in North America.

8. What impact did the French and Indian War have on Native American tribes?

• The war severely impacted Native American tribes, many of whom lost land and power. With the British in control, Native Americans had fewer allies, leading to increased British settlement and policies that disregarded Native American rights and territories.

9. How did the French and Indian War lead to tensions between Britain and its American colonies?

• After the war, Britain imposed new taxes on its American colonies to pay off war debts, such as the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act. These taxes, along with restrictions on westward expansion (Proclamation of 1763), fueled resentment and contributed to the growing desire for independence among colonists.

10. What was the Proclamation of 1763, and why did it anger American colonists?

• The Proclamation of 1763 was issued by the British to prevent American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains, intending to reduce conflicts with Native Americans. However, it angered many colonists who wanted to expand westward, seeing it as another way Britain was limiting their freedom.

11. What was George Washington's role in the early stages of the French and Indian War?

• In 1753, George Washington was a young Lieutenant Colonel in the Virginia militia. He was sent to warn the French against further encroachment on British-claimed land in the Ohio River Valley. This mission led to conflict, as Washington engaged in a skirmish with the French, winning initially but later losing when the French counter-attacked and took over a British fort.

12. Why was the Ohio River Valley significant in the French and Indian War?

• The Ohio River Valley was highly sought after because it provided valuable resources, strategic trade routes, and fertile land. Both the British and French wanted to control this area for expansion and economic reasons, which sparked ongoing disputes and battles in the region.

13. What was the Albany Congress, and what were its goals?

• The Albany Congress, or Albany Convention, took place in 1754, where delegates from several British colonies met to discuss defense strategies, trade policies, and westward expansion in preparation for conflict with the French and their Native American allies. One goal was to secure an alliance with the Iroquois Confederacy, though the Iroquois attended only symbolically without committing to a strong alliance.

14. What was the Albany Plan of Union, and who proposed it?

• Proposed by Benjamin Franklin at the Albany Congress, the Albany Plan of Union suggested creating a council of representatives from each colony to work together on defense and other shared interests. Franklin also created the famous "Join or Die" political cartoon to encourage unity. Although the plan was not adopted, it set a precedent for colonial cooperation and influenced later Revolutionary-era Congresses.

15. Why did Native American tribes often side with the French rather than the British?

• Many Native American tribes sided with the French because the French typically maintained a more cooperative relationship with them, trading fur and other goods without pushing aggressively for land. The tribes viewed the French as a lesser threat to their land compared to British settlers, who often sought to establish permanent settlements.

16. How did the British initially struggle in the French and Indian War?

• The French, with their Native American allies, gained early victories due to strong defenses, knowledge of the terrain, and the colonies' resistance to British demands. The British also resorted to impressment, or forced conscription, of American colonists and quartered British troops in colonists' homes, which led to tension and limited support from the colonies.

17. What impact did the French and Indian War have on British finances, and how did this influence King George's decisions?

• The cost of the French and Indian War put a significant financial strain on Britain, leading King George to seek peace to reduce expenses. This ultimately led to the Peace of Paris in 1763, which redrew territorial boundaries in North America, with Britain gaining much of the territory previously held by the French.

18. What were the terms of the Peace of Paris (1763), and how did it reshape North America?

• The Peace of Paris in 1763 ended the French and Indian War. Under its terms, France ceded most of its North American territories to Britain, including Canada and lands east of the Mississippi River, while Spain gained French land west of the Mississippi. Britain also gained Florida from Spain, marking a significant territorial expansion.

19. How did the end of the French and Indian War lead to tensions between American colonists and Native Americans?

• With the British in control of more territory, American colonists were eager to move westward into the newly acquired lands. However, this led to conflicts with Native American tribes who had relied on the balance of European powers to maintain some control. Native leaders, such as Ottawa chief Pontiac, resisted British expansion by leading raids on colonial forts.

20. What was the Proclamation Line of 1763, and why did it cause resentment among American colonists?

• The Proclamation Line of 1763 was established by Britain to prevent American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. This was intended to reduce conflicts with Native Americans, but it angered colonists who felt entitled to settle in the lands they helped conquer. This restriction fueled resentment against British rule, contributing to the growing desire for independence.

21. How did the cost of the French and Indian War impact British finances?

• The French and Indian War was extremely costly for Britain, nearly doubling its national debt. The expense of maintaining and protecting the expanded colonies put a financial strain on Britain, leading the British government to consider imposing new taxes on American colonists to help cover the costs.

22. What was the concept of “Taxation without Representation,” and why did it anger American colonists?

• "Taxation without Representation" refers to the frustration colonists felt at being taxed by the British government without having any representatives in the British Parliament to voice their interests. While the British argued that American colonists should help bear the financial burden of the war, colonists believed they should not be taxed by a government in which they had no direct representation.

23. Why did the British believe it was fair for the American colonists to pay taxes after the war?

• The British felt it was reasonable for American colonists to help pay taxes after the war because, as British citizens, they had benefited from the protection and newly acquired land in North America. British leaders believed that the colonists should contribute to the financial costs of the empire, especially since the war had been partially fought to protect colonial interests.

24. What was Salutary Neglect, and how did it shape the colonies before the French and Indian War?

• Salutary Neglect was an unofficial British policy where the colonies were largely left to govern themselves with minimal interference. Though Britain held formal political control, the colonies operated with a great deal of autonomy in their day-to-day affairs, creating a sense of independence that later fueled resistance to British interference and taxation.

25. How did the Navigation Acts contribute to colonial resentment, and why weren’t they strictly enforced?

• The Navigation Acts were laws that required American colonies to trade only with Britain or British-approved markets, aiming to ensure that Britain benefited from colonial trade. However, these laws were not strictly enforced, allowing the colonies to trade and even smuggle with other nations. When Britain later attempted to enforce these trade restrictions, it disrupted the colonies' economy and led to greater resentment.

26. What role did the Seven Years’ War play in shifting British policy towards the colonies?

• After the war, Britain shifted from a policy of Salutary Neglect to more direct control to ensure that the colonies contributed to war debts and ongoing defense costs. This shift included enforcing old trade laws and introducing new taxes, like the Stamp Act, which angered colonists who had grown accustomed to self-governance.

27. How did the British attempts to raise revenue lead to tensions with the American colonists?

• The British introduced a series of taxes on the colonies, such as the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts, to raise revenue. Colonists, however, saw these taxes as unjust, arguing that only their own colonial assemblies had the right to tax them. This led to protests, boycotts, and a growing movement for colonial unity against British policies.

28. How did Britain's neglect of colonial governance impact American attitudes towards independence?

• Britain's longstanding policy of Salutary Neglect allowed the colonies to operate with significant independence. Over time, this led colonists to feel self-sufficient and less dependent on Britain. When Britain later tried to exert control to manage its war debts, colonists resisted, feeling that the government was unjustly infringing on their autonomy.

29. What was British Prime Minister George Grenville’s plan for reasserting control over the colonies?

• Grenville’s plan had three main components: stricter enforcement of existing laws (like the Navigation Acts), extending wartime provisions into peacetime, and passing the Quartering Act of 1765, which required colonists to house and feed British soldiers stationed in the colonies.

30. What was the Sugar Act, and why did it anger the colonists?

• The Sugar Act imposed taxes on imported luxury items like coffee, wine, and certain sugars, while also strictly enforcing existing taxes on molasses. Colonists were angered by the Act because it targeted essential goods, restricted trade, and reinforced the feeling of being taxed unfairly without representation.

31. Why did the Stamp Act spark significant colonial opposition?

• The Stamp Act of 1765 required colonists to pay a tax on all paper goods, including newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards. This was the first direct tax on colonists, sparking widespread resistance because it affected many aspects of daily life and reinforced the idea of "taxation without representation."

32. How did the Currency Act impact the colonial economy?

• The Currency Act prohibited colonial assemblies from issuing their own currency, which destabilized the colonial economy by limiting available money. This exacerbated economic struggles like rising unemployment and declining wages, intensifying colonial frustration with British policies.

33. Who were the Sons of Liberty, Daughters of Liberty, and Vox Populi, and what was their role in colonial resistance?

• These groups, emerging primarily in response to the Stamp Act, united diverse individuals from various professions in resistance to British policies. They organized protests, boycotts, and rallies, advocating for colonial rights and raising awareness against what they saw as British tyranny.

34. What was the Stamp Act Congress, and what were its goals?

• The Stamp Act Congress, held in 1765, was a meeting of 27 delegates from various colonies to discuss responses to the Stamp Act. The Congress petitioned the British government to repeal the Stamp Act, arguing that it was an infringement on colonial rights. Importantly, while they protested the Act, they still expressed loyalty to Britain and did not advocate for revolution at this point.

35. What was the Declaratory Act, and how did it affect colonial attitudes?

• Passed after the repeal of the Stamp Act, the Declaratory Act asserted that Parliament had the authority to legislate for the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.” This law angered colonists, as it indicated that Parliament believed it could impose any laws, taxes, or restrictions on the colonies without their consent.

36. What was the Townshend Act, and how did the colonies respond?

• The Townshend Act of 1767 imposed taxes on imported goods such as paper, tea, and glass. Colonists responded by boycotting British goods; women even made homemade clothes and tea substitutes to avoid British imports. The widespread support for the boycott across social classes demonstrated a strong, unified colonial resistance.

37. What was the significance of the Boston Massacre in colonial opposition to Britain?

• The Boston Massacre occurred in 1770 when British soldiers, provoked by colonists, fired into a crowd, killing four and injuring others. This event fueled colonial distrust of British troops and government, reinforcing the belief that Britain was willing to use force against its own subjects.

38. What was the Boston Tea Party, and why did it happen?

• In 1773, the Sons of Liberty, dressed as Native Americans, dumped 45 tons of British tea into Boston Harbor in protest of the Tea Act, which gave the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales. Colonists resented this monopoly and preferred smuggling Dutch tea, seeing the Tea Act as another form of British control.

39. What were the Coercive Acts, and how did they escalate tensions?

• In response to the Boston Tea Party, Britain passed the Coercive Acts, or Intolerable Acts, which included closing Boston Harbor until the dumped tea was paid for and enforcing another Quartering Act. Colonists saw these punitive measures as intolerable infringements on their rights, leading them to form militias and prepare for potential military conflict.

40. How did the Intolerable Acts contribute to the formation of militias?

• The Intolerable Acts, seen as oppressive and punitive, led colonists to form militias to protect themselves from what they viewed as British tyranny. These militias eventually became instrumental in organizing armed resistance, marking a significant step toward the American Revolution.

41. How did colonial attitudes about government begin to change in the years leading up to the American Revolution?

• Leading up to the Revolution, colonists grew increasingly skeptical of British rule, feeling that the British government was violating their rights through legislative tyranny and oppressive taxes. Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers, they began to believe in principles of self-governance, natural rights, and government accountability, which fueled their desire to resist British infringements on their liberties.

42. Why was revolution still not considered a primary option by many colonists initially?

• Even as they became frustrated with British rule, most colonists initially hoped to resolve their grievances without a full-scale revolution. The First Continental Congress met to address British policies and defend colonial rights but did not seek independence outright, instead aiming to petition for redress while remaining loyal to the British crown.

43. How did the British government respond to colonial attempts to discuss grievances?

• The British government refused to meet with colonial representatives and dismissed their petitions, viewing colonial resistance as rebellion against British authority. This refusal to negotiate only intensified colonial feelings of injustice and moved them closer to considering independence as a solution.

44. Which Enlightenment thinker influenced the colonial belief in self-government, and what were his main ideas?

• John Locke was a significant influence on colonial thought. In Two Treatises of Government, Locke argued that government could only exist with the consent of the governed and that natural rights (life, liberty, and property) were granted by a creator, not by any government. Therefore, any government violating these rights could be resisted or replaced.

45. What were Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s contributions to colonial political thought?

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s concept of the Social Contract suggested that government power resides with the people, who consent to surrender some of their freedom in exchange for protection of their rights. This idea resonated with colonists who felt that British rule was failing to safeguard their rights, justifying resistance to unjust authority.

46. How did Baron de Montesquieu's ideas inspire colonial leaders?

• Montesquieu’s writings encouraged colonial leaders to consider republican government as an ideal way to protect personal liberties. He argued for a separation of powers into three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—with checks and balances to prevent any single branch from becoming too powerful, a principle that influenced the U.S. Constitution.

47. How did the Enlightenment influence Thomas Paine's Common Sense, and why was it so impactful?

• In Common Sense, Thomas Paine used biblical examples and Enlightenment arguments to criticize monarchy and advocate for independence. His clear, accessible language and persuasive arguments convinced many colonists that independence was the only path forward, framing British rule as incompatible with American liberty and self-governance.

48. What was the significance of the Second Continental Congress in moving toward independence?

• The Second Continental Congress, meeting in 1776, took decisive steps toward independence, including drafting a formal resolution for independence. Thomas Jefferson was tasked with writing the Declaration of Independence, which incorporated Enlightenment ideas about natural rights, the social contract, and government by consent, formally declaring the colonies' intent to break away from Britain.

49. How did Thomas Jefferson incorporate Enlightenment principles into the Declaration of Independence?

• Jefferson’s Declaration emphasized the concept of inalienable rights—life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness—reflecting Locke’s philosophy. He argued that governments derive their power from the consent of the governed and that the people have a right to alter or abolish any government that becomes destructive to these ends, justifying the colonies' choice to seek independence.

50. Why did colonists feel that their liberty was under threat, and how did this shape their actions?

• Colonists saw themselves as having a unique opportunity for liberty and self-governance, and any threat to that liberty was viewed as an attack on their way of life. This belief that their rights were sacred and worth defending led to a growing consensus that they must resist British rule, and eventually, to declare independence.

51. Why was the American victory in the Revolutionary War unexpected?

• The American victory was unexpected because Britain was the world's most powerful nation, with a well-trained military, and America was one of Britain’s most valuable trading partners. The Americans, on the other hand, were untrained, under-resourced, and divided in support for independence, making victory against such a formidable opponent seem unlikely.

52. How was public support for the Revolutionary War divided among American colonists?

• Public support for the war was split: roughly half of the colonists supported the Patriot cause, some were neutral, and others (known as Loyalists) opposed independence and supported Britain. This division added to the challenges faced by the Patriots, as not everyone in the colonies agreed with the fight for independence.

53. Why was George Washington chosen as the leader of the Continental Army?

• The Continental Congress appointed George Washington as the general of the Continental Army due to his leadership experience and popularity, stemming from his service in the French and Indian War. Washington’s appointment gave the Patriots a respected and capable leader who could unify the diverse colonial militias.

54. What were some early challenges faced by the Continental Army?

• The Continental Army suffered from poor training, lack of resources, and low morale. In the first six months, they lost every battle they fought, and many soldiers deserted, reluctant to protect regions other than their own. Washington had to work hard to maintain morale and prevent further desertions.

55. What was General William Howe’s impact on the Revolutionary War?

• British General William Howe arrived in New York with 10,000 professional soldiers and was joined by 60,000 Loyalists, creating a formidable force. Howe’s presence strengthened British control over strategic areas and initially made it challenging for the Continental Army to gain victories.

56. What strategy did George Washington adopt to counter British strength?

• Washington adopted a strategy of attrition, aiming to exhaust the British forces and resources over time rather than defeating them in direct confrontations. By extending the war, Washington hoped that Britain would eventually find the conflict too costly to continue.

57. What role did African American soldiers play in the Patriot cause?

• Washington offered freedom to enslaved people who fought for the Patriot cause, a strategy similar to Britain’s offer. Approximately 5,000 African Americans, most of whom were free Northerners, joined the fight on the Patriot side, contributing significantly to the war effort.

58. What was the significance of the Battle of Trenton?

• The Battle of Trenton was a morale-boosting victory for the Continental Army. Washington led a surprise attack, crossing the Delaware River to defeat Hessian (German) mercenaries allied with the British. This victory revived Patriot spirits and encouraged more soldiers to remain in the fight.

59. How did the Battle of Saratoga change the course of the war?

• The American victory at Saratoga was pivotal, convincing France to join the war on the side of the Patriots. Benjamin Franklin, who was in France seeking support, used this victory to show that the Americans had a chance of winning. French support brought military resources and international legitimacy to the Patriot cause.

60. Why did France, Spain, and Holland support the American cause?

• France, Spain, and Holland saw an opportunity to weaken Britain by supporting the American cause. France, in particular, had a long-standing rivalry with Britain and recognized that helping the colonies gain independence could reduce British power globally.

61. How did the French contribute to the American victory at Yorktown?

• The French provided essential naval and military support at the Battle of Yorktown. French ships blocked British reinforcements, while French and American troops worked together to surround and defeat British forces under General Cornwallis. This decisive victory effectively ended the war.

62. What were the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1783), and why was it significant?

• The Treaty of Paris formally ended the Revolutionary War, with Britain recognizing the United States as an independent nation. The treaty also established the western boundary of the new country at the Mississippi River, greatly expanding American territory and affirming the colonies’ new status on the world stage.

63. How did the American Revolution spark concerns about societal inequality in America?

• The ideals of liberty and equality from the Revolution made people question societal inequalities, particularly slavery. The Continental Congress abolished the importation of enslaved people, and several Northern states moved toward abolishing slavery. While there was initial momentum to end slavery, it faded, especially in the South, where slavery was vital to the economy.

64. How did the American Revolution impact the democratic structure of state and national governments?

• The Revolution opened up state and national governments to greater democratic influence by removing restrictions like titles of nobility. This change promoted the idea that people, regardless of status or lineage, had a right to participate in governance, setting a foundation for broader democratic involvement.

65. How did the American Revolution affect the roles and perceptions of women in society?

• During the Revolution, women took on expanded roles, managing farms and businesses while men were at war and supporting the troops through organizations like the Ladies’ Association of Philadelphia. Some women even fought disguised as men. This experience led many women to desire a more permanent role in society, and the concept of "republican motherhood" emerged, which encouraged women to educate their children in democratic ideals.

66. What was the concept of "republican motherhood," and why was it significant?

• "Republican motherhood" was the idea that women were essential to a healthy democracy because they were responsible for raising sons with strong republican values. This meant that women themselves needed to be educated in these principles, which gradually promoted the idea of women’s education as essential to the nation's future.

67. Why was the American victory in the Revolution unexpected, and how did it influence other countries?

• The world was surprised that American colonists, seen as less powerful and less organized than Britain, could defeat the British and build a government based on liberty and individual rights. This success inspired other countries, showing that it was possible to challenge and overthrow oppressive regimes.

68. How did the American Revolution inspire the French Revolution?

• The American Revolution inspired the French Revolution by demonstrating that people could resist and reform an unjust government. In 1789, facing economic hardship and lack of political power, French commoners formed the National Assembly. When King Louis XVI tried to suppress them, they stormed the Bastille, symbolizing the fight against oppression. The French also drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, drawing heavily on the American Declaration of Independence.

69. How did revolutionary ideals influence the Haitian Revolution?

• Revolutionary ideals inspired the Haitian Revolution, which was fueled by both the American and French Revolutions. Haiti, then a French colony, saw enslaved people rise against their masters and fight for independence. They ultimately succeeded, creating the first independent Black-led republic and ending slavery on the island.

70. How did the American Revolution impact Latin American independence movements?

• Revolutionary ideals spread to Latin America, where countries like Mexico, Peru, and Chile began to challenge colonial rule, aiming to gain independence from European powers. Influenced by the success of the American Revolution, these countries sought to establish their own governments based on principles of freedom and self-determination.

71. How did the Revolutionary War influence global perspectives on individual liberty and government?

• The American Revolution shifted global perspectives by showing that governments could be based on individual rights and the consent of the governed. It introduced the idea that people had a natural right to resist oppressive rulers, influencing political thought and inspiring democratic movements worldwide.

72. What were the Articles of Confederation?

• The Articles of Confederation were the first constitution of the United States, created as a foundational document to govern the nation after independence. It was largely influenced by existing state constitutions and focused power in the hands of the legislative branch to avoid centralizing too much authority in a single individual or branch.

73. How did the Articles of Confederation structure the federal government?

• The Articles created a weak central government with most of the power given to the legislature, which consisted of representatives from each state. There was no president or supreme court under the Articles, and each state had only one vote in Congress. This setup limited federal power and made decision-making difficult, as changes required the approval of 9 out of 13 states.

74. Why did the Articles of Confederation place most power in the legislative branch?

• The Articles placed power in the legislative branch to avoid concentrating too much authority in one person or office, as the colonies had experienced under British rule. This focus on a representative legislative branch reflected a desire for governance directly accountable to the people.

75. What was the Northwest Ordinance, and why was it significant?

• The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 was a policy established under the Articles of Confederation to manage westward expansion and address issues with settlers in the Northwest Territory. It abolished slavery in the Northwest Territory and provided a path for territories to apply for statehood, setting a lasting precedent for orderly expansion.

76. How did the Articles of Confederation handle state representation in Congress?

• Under the Articles, each state had one vote in Congress, regardless of its population size. This equal representation often led to disagreements and made it difficult to pass legislation, as major decisions required a supermajority of 9 out of 13 states.

77. What challenges did the Articles of Confederation face in regulating westward migration?

• The Articles struggled to regulate westward migration, as Americans moving westward often encountered violent conflicts with Native Americans. Some settlers claimed land without oversight, leading to chaotic and sometimes dangerous conditions. The Northwest Ordinance helped to address these issues by providing a legal framework for settlement and expansion.

78. What was Shays' Rebellion, and why did it highlight the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?

• Shays' Rebellion was an uprising led by farmer Daniel Shays in response to economic hardship and debt following the Revolutionary War. Shays and his followers attempted to seize an arsenal in Massachusetts, but the state militia stopped them. The rebellion exposed the Articles’ weaknesses, as the federal government lacked the power to intervene or maintain order in such crises.

79. How did Shays' Rebellion influence leaders' views on the Articles of Confederation?

• Shays' Rebellion alarmed leaders across the states, showing them that the federal government was too weak under the Articles to handle serious domestic disturbances. This rebellion, along with other similar uprisings, motivated local and federal leaders to consider replacing the Articles with a stronger, more effective system of government.

80. Why did the Articles of Confederation eventually need to be replaced?

• The Articles needed to be replaced because they created a government that was too weak to handle significant issues, such as economic stability, interstate disputes, and internal security. The inability to effectively govern and respond to crises like Shays' Rebellion led leaders to advocate for a new constitution that would establish a stronger federal government.

81. What did the Articles of Confederation reveal about early American attitudes toward government power?

• The Articles of Confederation reflected early Americans’ distrust of centralized power and preference for local governance. Many Americans were wary of strong executive power after British rule, leading them to design a weak central government. However, the limitations of the Articles showed the need for a balanced approach between state and federal authority.

82. What was the purpose of the Constitutional Convention in 1787, and who were some key figures?

• The Constitutional Convention was convened in Philadelphia to address the issues of the Articles of Confederation. Although initially intended to reform the Articles, delegates quickly decided to create a new constitution. Key figures included James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, who advocated for a stronger central government.

83. What were the Virginia and New Jersey Plans, and how did they differ in representing the states?

• The Virginia Plan, favored by larger states, proposed a strong centralized government with a bicameral legislature based on population. In contrast, the New Jersey Plan, favored by smaller states, proposed a unicameral legislature where each state had equal representation. The plans reflected a divide on whether representation should be based on population or equality among states.

84. What was the Great Compromise, and how did it address the issues of state representation?

• The Great Compromise merged the Virginia and New Jersey Plans. It established a bicameral legislature with the House of Representatives based on population (as larger states wanted) and the Senate, where each state has two senators, ensuring equal representation for smaller states.

85. Why was the Three-Fifths Compromise introduced, and what did it entail?

• The Three-Fifths Compromise was introduced to address how enslaved people would be counted for state representation in the House. Southern states wanted enslaved individuals counted as part of their population to gain more seats, while the North argued this was hypocritical. The compromise counted each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for representation purposes.

86. What decisions did the Convention make regarding the future of slavery?

• To appease Southern states, the Convention agreed not to ban the importation of enslaved individuals until 1808, allowing Southern states to maintain their economic reliance on slavery without immediate federal interference.

87. How did the Convention address the election of representatives, senators, and the president?

• Representatives in the House were to be directly elected by the people for two-year terms. Senators were initially elected by state legislatures for six-year terms to represent state interests. The president would be elected by the Electoral College every four years, creating a balance between direct and indirect election methods.

88. Why did the Constitution require ratification by nine of the thirteen states, and what debate did this spark?

• To ensure broad support, the Constitution required ratification by at least nine states. This led to a national debate between Federalists, who supported the new Constitution, and Anti-Federalists, who opposed it due to concerns about an overly powerful central government and the lack of protections for individual rights.

89. Who were the Federalists, and what was their position on the Constitution?

• Federalists, including Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, supported the new Constitution, arguing that a stronger central government was necessary for unity and stability. They believed the structure of the new government had enough checks and balances to prevent tyranny.

90. Who were the Anti-Federalists, and what concerns did they have about the Constitution?

• Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution, fearing that it concentrated too much power in the federal government and lacked protections for individual rights. They worried that without a Bill of Rights, citizens’ freedoms could be infringed upon by a powerful central authority.

91. How did the Federalists secure ratification of the Constitution, and what promise helped persuade the Anti-Federalists?

• The Federalists secured ratification through effective organization, persuasive arguments (notably the Federalist Papers), and by promising to add a Bill of Rights. This addition ensured protections for individual liberties, addressing some of the Anti-Federalists' major concerns and helping secure the Constitution's ratification.

92. What is federalism, and how does it function in the U.S. Constitution?

• Federalism is the system of government in which power is shared between a national government and state governments. In the U.S., the Constitution divides powers between these levels of government, granting some powers exclusively to the federal government and reserving others for the states.

93. How does Article 6 of the U.S. Constitution address conflicts between federal and state laws?

• Article 6 of the Constitution includes the Supremacy Clause, which asserts that the federal constitution and federal laws take precedence over state laws when there is a conflict. This means that if a state law contradicts a federal law, the federal law prevails.

94. What are enumerated powers, and how do they relate to federalism?

• Enumerated powers are those specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution. These powers are listed in Article I, Section 8, and include things like regulating commerce, coining money, and providing for national defense. These powers are limited, meaning the federal government can only exercise those powers explicitly granted to it, while other powers are reserved for the states.

95. What is the significance of the 10th Amendment in the context of federalism?

• The 10th Amendment reinforces the principle of federalism by stating that any powers not specifically delegated to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. This ensures that states retain powers over matters not explicitly covered by federal law.

96. How does the U.S. Constitution establish the separation of powers?

• The Constitution establishes the separation of powers by dividing the government into three distinct branches:

  • Legislative Branch (Congress): Makes laws.

  • Executive Branch (President): Enforces laws.

  • Judicial Branch (Courts): Interprets laws to ensure they are in alignment with the Constitution.

97. What is the purpose of checks and balances, and how does it function in the U.S. government?

• The checks and balances system ensures that no one branch of government becomes too powerful. Each branch has some measure of influence over the others:

  • The President can veto laws passed by Congress.

  • Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority vote.

  • The Judicial Branch can declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional through judicial review.

  • The Legislative Branch confirms judicial appointments and can impeach the president or federal judges.

98. How does the system of checks and balances prevent the concentration of power in one branch of government?

• Checks and balances prevent any one branch from gaining too much power by allowing each branch to limit or influence the actions of the others. This ensures that the branches must cooperate and act within the boundaries set by the Constitution, protecting against tyranny or the abuse of power.

99. What was George Washington's role in shaping the new U.S. government?

• George Washington was unanimously elected as the first president of the United States. He set many precedents for the new government, including creating executive departments (Treasury, War, State, and Justice), which were each headed by a secretary. Washington also played a critical role in navigating early international and domestic challenges, like the French Revolution and the Whiskey Rebellion.

100. What was Alexander Hamilton's vision for the U.S. economy, and how did he implement it?

• As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton sought to stabilize the nation's economy by establishing a national bank, which would unify the states and improve credit. He proposed accruing state debts into national debt to strengthen the central government and allow the U.S. to borrow money from foreign nations. He justified the creation of a national bank using the Elastic Clause, arguing that it was not prohibited by the Constitution, and therefore legal.

101. What was the significance of the Proclamation of Neutrality issued by George Washington?

• The Proclamation of Neutrality, issued in 1793, declared that the United States would not take sides in the conflict between France and Britain during the French Revolution. Hamilton convinced Washington that America was too young and weak to be involved in foreign wars, especially one involving a major power like Britain. This decision was controversial, especially with figures like Thomas Jefferson, who favored supporting France.

102. What was Jay's Treaty, and how did it address tensions between the U.S. and Britain?

• Jay's Treaty (1794) was negotiated by John Jay to resolve issues with Britain, such as the seizure of American ships and the impressment of sailors. The treaty resulted in Britain agreeing to abandon its military posts in the West, but it did not address the issue of ship seizures. It was unpopular with many Americans, especially Jeffersonians, because it seemed to favor Britain.

103. How did the Pinckney Treaty with Spain benefit the United States?

• The Pinckney Treaty (1795) resolved tensions between the U.S. and Spain by granting the United States access to the port of New Orleans and securing the southern border of the U.S. at the 31st parallel. Spain feared that the U.S. was growing too close to Britain, so this treaty was an effort to secure Spain's interests in North America.

104. What was the significance of the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794?

• The Battle of Fallen Timbers was a decisive conflict in which the U.S. Army defeated a confederacy of Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley. The victory opened up the region for American settlement and helped secure the U.S.'s claims to the Ohio Valley, further expanding the nation westward.

105. What was the Whiskey Rebellion, and how did Washington respond?

• The Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 was a protest by farmers in Pennsylvania against an excise tax on whiskey. When tax collectors were attacked, Washington responded decisively by sending in the U.S. Army to suppress the rebellion, demonstrating the strength and authority of the new federal government.

106. What were the ideological differences between the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans?

• Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, favored a strong central government, a strong national economy, and closer ties with Britain. They represented urban and elite interests.

• Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, championed states' rights, a more limited central government, and favored agricultural interests. They advocated for closer ties with France and were more skeptical of centralized power.

107. What warning did George Washington give in his Farewell Address?

• In his Farewell Address (1796), George Washington warned the American people against the dangers of political parties and permanent foreign alliances. He believed that political factions would divide the country and that the U.S. should remain neutral in foreign conflicts to avoid entanglements that could lead to war.

108. What was the XYZ Affair, and how did it affect U.S.-French relations?

• The XYZ Affair was a diplomatic incident in 1797 where three French officials (referred to as X, Y, and Z) demanded a bribe from American diplomats before they could begin negotiations. The American public was outraged, leading to anti-French sentiment and an undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France known as the Quasi-War.

109. What were the Alien and Sedition Acts, and how did they impact political dissent in the U.S.?

• The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) were laws passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress that allowed the federal government to deport non-citizens deemed dangerous and made it illegal to criticize the government publicly. These acts were controversial because they were seen as an infringement on individual rights, particularly the freedom of speech and the press.

110. What were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, and what principle did they assert?

• The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798-1799), written by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, asserted the right of states to nullify federal laws they believed were unconstitutional. These resolutions were in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts and argued that the federal government had overstepped its constitutional authority.

111. How did Thomas Jefferson become the third president of the United States?

• Thomas Jefferson became the third president in 1801 after defeating John Adams in the election of 1800. This election is sometimes called the "Revolution of 1800" because it marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history, from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans.

112. Republican Motherhood and Women's Role in Society

• The concept of Republican Motherhood emerged as a cultural shift that highlighted the importance of women in shaping the future of the United States. While women still had limited legal rights and were largely confined to domestic roles, their influence in raising virtuous citizens (sons who would become active participants in a republic) was considered essential. This idea suggested that women, particularly mothers, were crucial in fostering the values of liberty, democracy, and virtue in the next generation.

• As a result, there was a push for women’s education—though it was mostly focused on white women—so that they could better fulfill their roles in educating their children. Schools for girls began to expand, but the focus was on teaching domestic skills and moral education, with limited access to higher education.

113. Art and Literature

• Art during this time was heavily influenced by European styles. However, there was a conscious effort to depict American leaders and historical events, with portraits and paintings becoming key methods of creating national identity.

  • Charles Wilson Peale's portraits of George Washington helped establish the image of the President as a revered figure.

  • Samuel Jennings' paintings were innovative for their inclusion of women and African Americans, often emphasizing reason, education, and moral virtue, in line with Enlightenment ideals.

  • John Trumbull, another important artist, was known for his romanticized depictions of significant Revolutionary events, helping to shape the visual narrative of American history.

• Literature was also influenced by European forms, but it began to develop a distinctly American voice, especially in the post-Revolutionary period. One of the most famous works was Benjamin Franklin’s Poor Richard's Almanack. It included popular aphorisms and ideas that emphasized hard work, thrift, and self-reliance—values that became central to the emerging American identity.

114. Architecture

• Architecture in America, particularly in public and civic buildings, mirrored European styles. Neoclassical architecture, which was inspired by ancient Greek and Roman ideals, became popular, symbolizing the new nation's aspirations for virtue and democracy. The design of buildings like the Virginia State Capitol (designed by Thomas Jefferson) and the U.S. Capitol reflected these ideals.

115. Religion and the Separation of Church and State

• The issue of religion was also evolving in the new American identity. Thomas Jefferson's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786) played a crucial role in defining the relationship between religion and government, ensuring that there would be no official state religion and that religious freedom would be protected. This statute was influential in the creation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guarantees the separation of church and state, reinforcing the concept that government should not interfere in religious matters.

116. National Identity and the Role of the Enlightenment

• The broader intellectual climate in America during this period was heavily shaped by Enlightenment ideas, which emphasized reason, liberty, and individual rights. These ideas influenced political thought and were incorporated into the founding documents, such as the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.

• The Revolutionary War and the subsequent creation of a republic marked a shift from colonial identities to a collective American identity. People began to see themselves as part of a new, distinct nation, with values that were not just European but uniquely American.

117. The Expansion of Education

• Along with the rise of Republican Motherhood, the need for an educated citizenry also led to broader calls for education reform, although this was limited in scope. While education for girls and women expanded, it was still largely seen as a domestic function rather than a civic or intellectual pursuit.

• The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 promoted education in new territories, encouraging the establishment of schools as part of the process of creating new states.

118. Slavery and the Contradictions of Freedom

• While ideals of liberty and equality were central to the American identity, the contradiction of slavery was a deeply ingrained part of American society, especially in the South. The issues of race and slavery would continue to shape the cultural and political landscape, despite the growing abolitionist movements in the North.

1. French and Indian War: Conflict between British and French forces in North America from 1754 to 1763, part of the Seven Years' War.

2. Name Explanation: It's named for the British fighting the French and their Native American allies.

3. Main Cause: Territorial disputes over the Ohio River Valley.

4. Global Context: This war was the North American part of the larger Seven Years' War, focusing on colonial territories and trade.

5. Native American Allies: Tribes like the Huron, Ottawa, and Algonquin sided with the French, viewing them as less threatening compared to the British.

6. British Advantage: The British gained momentum through superior resources and key victories, such as the capture of Quebec.

7. Treaty of Paris (1763): Ended the war; France ceded territories to Britain, expanding British claims in North America.

8. Impact on Native Americans: Many lost land and influence as the British took control, disregarding Native American rights.

9. Colonial Tensions: Post-war taxes and expansion restrictions led to resentment among American colonists.

10. Proclamation of 1763: Restricted westward expansion, angering colonists who wanted to settle new lands.

11. George Washington's Role: In 1753, he was sent to warn the French, which led to conflict.

12. Ohio River Valley Importance: Viewed as a valuable area for resources and trade.

13. Albany Congress: 1754 meeting to discuss colonial defense and alliances.

14. Albany Plan of Union: Proposed by Benjamin Franklin to create a united colonial government for defense, though it was not adopted.

15. French Native American Relations: French generally maintained better relations with tribes than the British.

16. British Early Struggles: Early defeats due to strong French defenses and resistance from colonists.

17. Budget Impact: The war increased Britain's debt, influencing King George's policies.

18. Terms of Peace of Paris: France ceded most of its North American territories to Britain.

19. Post-War Conflicts: American colonists faced tensions with Native Americans due to westward expansion.

20. Proclamation Line: Angered colonists, seeing it as an infringement on their rights.

21. War Cost: War nearly doubled Britain's national debt, prompting new taxes.

22. ‘Taxation without Representation’: Colonists felt unfairly taxed without representation in Parliament.

23. British Perspective: Believed colonists should help pay for protections and newly gained land.

24. Salutary Neglect: The pre-war policy of minimal British interference in colonial governance.

25. Navigation Acts: Trade laws that fueled resentment when enforced later.

26. Shift in Policy: Britain moved from Salutary Neglect to direct control post-war.

27. Revenue Measures: New taxes raised colonial tensions, leading to protests.

28. Colonial Governance: Prior neglect led to feelings of self-sufficiency and resistance against renewed control.

29. Grenville's Plan: Included strict enforcement of laws and the Quartering Act.

30. Sugar Act: Tax on luxury goods angered colonists due to trade restrictions.

31. Stamp Act: First direct tax led to widespread opposition for affecting daily life.

32. Currency Act: Limited the colonial economy by prohibiting self-issued currency.

33. Sons of Liberty & Daughters of Liberty: Groups that organized protests against British rule.

34. Stamp Act Congress: Delegates that petitioned against the Stamp Act while remaining loyal to Britain.

35. Declaratory Act: Asserted Parliament's authority over the colonies, angering colonists.

36. Townshend Act: Imposed new taxes that led to widespread boycotts.

37. Boston Massacre: 1770 incident that fueled anti-British sentiments.

38. Boston Tea Party: Protest against the Tea Act where colonists dumped tea into the harbor.

39. Coercive Acts: Punitive measures that escalated tensions and led to militias forming.

40. Intolerable Acts: Caused colonies to organize militias in defense against British tyranny.

41. Colonial Attitudes: Growing skepticism towards British governance influenced independence desires.

42. Initial Resistance to Revolution: Colonists sought redress rather than outright independence.

43. British Responses: Dismissal of colonial grievances intensified feelings of injustice.

44. John Locke's Influence: Emphasized consent of the governed and natural rights.

45. Rousseau's Ideas: Promoted the social contract and government accountability.

46. Montesquieu's Concepts: Advocated separation of powers as a safeguard against tyranny.

47. Paine's Common Sense: Used Enlightenment arguments to advocate for independence.

48. Second Continental Congress: Took steps toward independence with the Declaration of Independence.

49. Jefferson's Declaration: Incorporated Enlightenment ideas of rights and consent of the governed.

50. Colonial Liberty Threats: Perceived threats to liberty led to a strong resistance to British rule.

51. Unexpected Victory: American success in the Revolutionary War surprised many due to Britain's strength.

52. Divided Support: Public opinion was split among Patriots, neutrals, and Loyalists.

53. Washington's Leadership: Credibility from past service helped unify colonial militias.

54. Continental Army Challenges: Early losses and morale issues plagued the Army.

55. General Howe's Impact: Strengthened British control and posed challenges for the Continental Army.

56. Washington's Strategy: Focused on outlasting the British rather than direct confrontations.

57. African American Contributions: About 5,000 joined the Patriot cause, helping the war effort.

58. Battle of Trenton: A surprise victory that boosted morale significantly.

59. Saratoga's Importance: Secured French support for the Patriot cause.

60. European Support: France and Spain saw a chance to weaken Britain by helping the colonies.

61. French Assistance at Yorktown: Vital military support helped lead to British surrender.

62. Treaty of Paris (1783): Formally recognized the U.S. as independent and expanded its territory.

63. Social Inequality Concerns: Revolutionary ideals sparked discussions on slavery and equality.

64. Democratic Changes: Revolution promoted increased democratic involvement in governance.

65. Women’s Roles: Expanded responsibilities during the war led to new perspectives on women’s rights.

66. Republican Motherhood: Emphasized women's roles in raising virtuous citizens for the republic.

67. Global Influence: American Revolution inspired movements for liberty in other nations.

68. Impact on the French Revolution: Americans’ success motivated French citizens to revolt.

69. Haitian Revolution Influence: The rebellion led to Haiti gaining independence from French rule.

70. Latin American Independence: Revolutionary ideals inspired independence movements in Latin America.

71. Global Perspectives on Liberty: Shifted views on rights and governance worldwide.

72. Articles of Confederation: First constitution of the U.S., prioritizing state governance.

73. Government Structure: Created a weak central government focused on the legislature.

74. Legislative Power Focus: Aimed to avoid too much power in any one person or office.

75. Northwest Ordinance: Managed westward expansion and addressed land issues.

76. State Representation Issues: Each state had one vote regardless of size, complicating decisions.

77. Migration Challenges: The Articles struggled to manage violent conflicts with Native Americans.

78. Shays' Rebellion Significance: Highlighted weaknesses in the Articles’ lack of authority.

79. Leader Reactions: Triggered more calls for a stronger government to address issues.

80. Need for Replacement: Articles proved too weak to effectively govern and respond to crises.

81. Early Government Attitudes: Reflected distrust of centralized power while showing need for balance.

82. Constitutional Convention: Held to address failures and create a new constitution.

83. Virginia vs. New Jersey Plans: Proposed different representation methods for Congress.

84. Great Compromise: Combined both plans for a bicameral legislature.

85. Three-Fifths Compromise: Addressed how enslaved people would be counted for representation.

86. Slavery Decisions: Delayed banning the import of enslaved individuals until 1808.

87. Election Processes: Established methods for electing representatives and the president.

88. Ratification Debate: Required nine states' approval, leading to Federalist and Anti-Federalist divisions.

89. Federalist Support: Advocated for a strong central government with checks and balances.

90. Anti-Federalist Concerns: Fears over too much federal power and lack of rights protections.

91. Securing Ratification: Promises to add a Bill of Rights helped gain support.

92. Federalism Explained: Power split between national and state governments.

93. Supremacy Clause: Federal laws take precedence over state laws in conflicts.

94. Enumerated Powers: Specific powers granted to federal government listed in the Constitution.

95. 10th Amendment Role: Ensures states retain powers not assigned to the federal government.

96. Separation of Powers Structure: Divided government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

97. Checks and Balances Purpose: Prevents any branch from becoming too powerful.

98. Power Concentration Prevention: Ensures cooperation across government branches.

99. Washington's Government Role: Established precedents as the first president.

100. Hamilton's Economic Vision: Promoted a national bank and financial stability.

101. Neutrality Proclamation Significance: Ensured the U.S. avoided involvement in foreign conflicts.

102. Jay's Treaty Impact: Addressed U.S.-Britain tensions with mixed public response.

103. Pinckney Treaty Benefits: Secured trading rights and boundaries with Spain.

104. Battle of Fallen Timbers Outcome: Secured Ohio Valley for American settlement.

105. Whiskey Rebellion Response: Washington's decisive action demonstrated federal authority.

106. Federalist vs. Democratic-Republican Ideologies: Contrasting views on government size and foreign ties.

107. Washington's Farewell Warning: Advised against political parties and permanent alliances.

108. XYZ Affair Impact: Heightened tensions with France and spurred national unity.

109. Alien and Sedition Acts: Controversial laws seen as attacks on individual rights.

110. Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions Principle: Affirmed state rights to nullify federal laws.

111. Jefferson’s Presidency: First peaceful power transfer between parties.

112. Republican Motherhood Focus: Emphasized women's roles in educating virtuous citizens.

113. Art and National Identity: Evolved to include American themes while still influenced by Europe.

114. Architectural Styles: Neoclassical designs reflected democratic ideals in civic buildings.

115. Religious Freedom Development: Ensured separation of church and state under Jefferson.

116. Enlightenment Ideas: Fostered a distinct American identity focused on liberty and rights.

117. Education Expansion: Push for education reform linked to evolving ideas of citizenship.

118. Slavery Contradictions: Ongoing issues of race and slavery challenged revolutionary ideals.