Contextualizing Period 7

• Economic growth → large corporations + cycles of the economy

• Stability and Democracy → gov action to economic instability + social reforms

• Responding to an Economic Crisis → Great Depression + laisse-faire

• Conflicts in Culture and Society → popular culture + mass media

• Shifts in Foreign Relations → debates over imperialism + US role in the world

Becoming a World Power (1865-1917)

Seward

• William H Seward of New York served as Secretary of State and formulated the Monroe Doctrine

• Monroe Doctrine: warned European powers to stay out of Latin America

• This led to annexation, canals, and Alaska Purchase

French in Mexico

• Napoleon III took advantage of our involvement in Civil War and sent French troops to occupy Mexico

• Seward invoked when Road Doctrine and threatened US military action unless the French withdrew

The Purchase of Alaska

• Russia and GB claim Alaska but Russia assumed control and est colony for seal hunting

• The territory became an economic burden because of the British takeover so they wanted a buyer

• Seward convinced Congress in 1867 to buy Alaska for $7.2 million

• “Seward Folly” or “Seward’s Icebox”

The “New Imperialism”

• Expansionists hope to achieve their ends by economic and diplomatic means, not by military action

• International Darwinism

  • Imperialism

    • Acquiring territory + gaining control over the political and economic life of other countries

    • Missionaries, politicians, naval strategists, and journalists were all involved

  • Missionaries

    • Reverend Josiah Strong → believed protestant Christians has the religious duty to colonize other lands in order to spread Christianity and + the benefits of “superior”

    • Politicians → rep party allied with business leaders to endorse foreign affairs + markets

  • Naval Power

    • Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan → argues that a strong navy was crucial to a country’s ambitions of becoming a world power

  • Popular Press

    • Newspaper and magazine editors increased circulation by printing adventure stories about distant places

Latin America

• Monore Doctrine

• Blaine and the Pan-American Conference (1889)

  • James G. Blaine, a US Secretary of State, organized the Conference attended by representatives from 19 countries in North and South America.

  • Its purpose was to promote cooperation and understanding among the American nations and to encourage trade and commerce.

• Cleveland, Olney, and Monroe Doctrine

  • In 1895, Venezuela and British Guiana signed a treaty that drew a boundary between the two countries.

  • Venezuela claimed that its territory had been encroached upon by the British, and the US agreed to mediate the dispute.

  • Secretary of State Richard Olney warned the British that the US would resort to force to prevent any further encroachment.

  • Olney cited the Monroe Doctrine as the basis for the US's intervention in the dispute

The Spanish-American War

• Causes of war → Jingoism, economic interests, moral concerns

• Cuban Revolt → Nationalists failed to overthrow Spanish rule + hoped to ally with the US, Send General Valeriano Weyler + 100,000 troops to crush the revolt (The Butcher)

• Yellow Press → type of journalism that promoted war fever in the US

• De Lome Letter (1898) → Spanish insult against US National Honor (critical of McKinely)

• McKinley War Message

  • Put an end to barbarities, bloodshed, starvation, and miseries in Cuba

  • Protect lives and property of US citizens in Cuba

  • End economic injury of US people

  • End menace to peace in Cuba

• Teller Amendment

  • Declared that once please was restored to the island Cuba would control their own government

Fighting the war

• The Philippines

  • Roosevelt ordered a fleet by George Dewey to the Philippines + fire the Spanish ships in Manila Bay

  • The fight took a long but they allied with Filipino rebels to capture the city of Manila

• Invasion of Cuba

  • The Spanish fleet was quickly destroyed by the US Navy

  • The US Army faced challenges due to tropical diseases and poor planning

  • The Battle of Santiago de Cuba was a decisive battle, resulting in the surrender of the Spanish forces

Annexation of Hawaii

• The United States had been interested in Hawaii since the mid-19th century when American businessmen began investing in the islands

• In 1893, American businessmen and planters overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy with the support of the U.S. government

• The Republic of Hawaii was established, but it was short-lived. In 1898, the U.S. annexed Hawaii, making it a US territory + 50th state

Controversy Over the Treaty of Peace

• Recognition of Cuban independence

• Acquisition of Puerto Rico and Guam + Philippines for $20 million

• The Philippine Question

  • Americans, such as William Jennings Bryan, opposed the annexation of the Philippines on moral and economic grounds

  • Others, like President McKinley and many Republicans, argued that the Philippines would provide a valuable base for American trade and military power in the Pacific

  • This led to the establishment of an American colony in the Philippines that lasted until 1946.

• Insular Cases

  • US Supreme Court cases, in the 1900s, dealt with the status of territories acquired by the US during the Spanish-American War

  • The Court ruled that the Constitution did not to these territories and that the US gov had broad powers to govern them without the consent of their inhabitants

  • Set a precedent for the treatment of territories as second-class entities

• Cuba and the Platt Amendment (1901)

  • Cuba can’t sign a treaty with a foreign power that impaired its independence

  • Cuba has to permit the US to intervene in its affairs

  • Cuba has to allow the US to maintain naval bases esp Guantanamo Bay

• Election of 1900

  • Rep. William McKinley and Dem William Jennings Bryan

  • Bryan campaigned on a platform of free silver, anti-imperialism, and opposition to the annexation of the Philippines

  • McKinley won a comfortable victory, winning 292 electoral votes to Bryan's 155, and securing a second term in office.

• Recognition of US Power

  • National Pride + Britain and other European Nations recognized the US as world-class power

Open Door Policy in China

• Russia, Japan, Britain, France, and Germany est. spheres of Influence in China

• They could dominate trade and investment within their sphere to shut out competitors

• Boxer Rebellion: Boxers attacked foreign settlements and murdered dozens of Christian missionaries

  • US troops were sent to crush the rebellion + Cina had to pay a huge some

• Hay’s Second Round of Notes

  • Hay feared expeditionary force in China so wrote a note to the powers for preserving China’s integrity + safeguard “Equal and impartial trade with all parts of the Chinese empire”

Theodore Roosevelt’s Big-Stick Policy

• The policy of mediated negotiation (speaking softly) supported by the unspoken threat of a powerful military (big stick)

• The Panama Canal

  • The US wanted a canal through Central America to connect the Atlantic + Pacific oceans

  • Hay-Paucefote Treaty: let the US build the canal alone

• Revolution in Panama

  • Roosevelt orchestrated a revolt for Panama’s independence from Columbia

  • With support from US Navy → rebellion succeeded

  • Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty→ granting US states rights over canal

• Building the Canal

  • Labors lost their lives for the effort

  • Americans approved canal but disliked tactics to secure the canal

  • 1921, Congress paid Columbia an indemnity of $25 million for the loss of Panama

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

• Stated the nations of the Western Hemisphere were not open to colonization by Europe + US had a responsibility to preserve order + protect life and property in those countries

• Used to justify sending US forces to Latin American countries → poor relations with the region of Latin America

East Asia

• Russo-Japanese War

  • Russia + Japan in war → TR arranged a conference in New Hampshire

  • Treaty of Portsmouth: ended battle but the Japanese blamed the US for not giving Russia to Japan

• Gentlemen’s Agreement

  • An informal agreement between two parties that is not legally binding

  • The Japanese government agreed to restrict the emigration of Japanese workers to the US in return for TR to persuade CA to repeal discriminatory laws

• Great White Fleet: TR sent battleships on cruise + Japan welcomed the arrival

• Root Takahira Agreement (1908) → pledged mutual respect for each nation’s possession and support for the Open Door policy

• Peace Efforts

  • TR won Nobel Peace Prize for the Russo-Japanese War agreement

  • In the same year, he helped arrange Algeciras Conference in Spain→ succeeded in settling the conflict between France and Germany

  • Second International Peace Conference: discussed rules for limiting warfare

William Howard Taft and Dollar Diplomacy

• Use of a country's financial power to extend its international influence

East Asia and Latin America

• Railroads in China→ Tafft succeded in securing American participation in an agreement

• Russia and Japan agreed to treat Manchuria as a jointly held sphere of influence

• Intervention in Nicaragua → US intervened in financial affairs + sent marines when civil war broke out

The Lodge Corollary

• Henry Cabot Lodge a Republican senator from Massachusetts was responsible for an action that alienated both Latin America and Japan

• Japanese investors wanted to buy a large part of Mexico's Baja Peninsula

• Fearing that Japan's government might be scheming large introduced the Senate and passed the resolution known as the lodge corollary really to the Monroe Doctrine

• Lodge Corollary: non-European powers would be excluded from owning territory in the Western Hemisphere

Woodrow Wilson and Foreign Affairs

• Wilson's Moral Diplomacy → hope to demonstrate that the US respected other nations’ rights and would support the spread of democracy

• Moral Diplomacy was tested with the Mexican revolution

• The Philippines

  • Jones Act of 1916: granted full territorial status to the country, guaranteed a Bill of Rights and Universal male suffrage, promised Independence for the Philippines as soon as a stable government was established

• Puerto Rico

  • An act of Congress in 1917 ed US citizenship to inhabitants plus limited self-government

• the Panama Canal

  • Wilson perseverated Congress to  get us ships and exemption from paying Canal tolls

• Conciliation treaties

  • William Jennings Bryan wanted to negotiate treaties in which nations pledged to submit disputes to International commissions and observe a one-year cooling-off period before taking military action

Military intervention under Wilson

• Tampico incident

  • To Aid revolutionaries fighting Huerta Wilson called for arms and Fargo against the Mexican government and sent a fleet to blockade part of Veracruz

  • US Sailors went to Short Tampico and were arrested by Mexican authorities

  • Huerta  refuse to apologize and War seemed imminent

  • Averted when South America's ABC Powers offered to mediate the dispute

• Pancho Villa and the US Expeditionary Force

  • HUERTA fell from power in late 1914 and was replaced by a Democratic regime led by Carranza

  • The new government was challenged by a Band of rebels loyal to Pancho Villa

  • Villa led raids across us American Border and murdered several people in Texas and New Mexico

  • Wilson ordered expeditionary Forces to pursue Villa but  failed to capture them

  • In January 1917 the growing possibility of us entry into World War I caused will send to withdraw Pershing troops

The Progressive Era (1901-1917)

Origins of progressivism

• Attitudes and motives

  • Transforming into an industrialized Nation with mixed ethnicity

• Who were the progressives

  • Protestant church leaders,  African Americans, union leaders, feminists

• Urban middle class

  • Progressives were middle-class men and women who lived in the cities

  • Middle class had grown steadily in the final decades and white-collar office workers and middle managers were employed in  banks, manufacturing firms, and other businesses

• Professional class

  • Belonged to hundreds of National Business and Professional associations that provided platforms to address corrupt business and government practices

• Religion

  • Protested churches preached against Vice and talk the code of social responsibility

  • The Social Gospel was popularized

  • Protestants were native-born and older stock Americans often from families of older

• Leadership

  • Theodore Roosevelt, Robert La Follette, William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson

• The Progressives’ Philosophy

  • Committed to democratic values and shared the belief that honest government and just laws could improve the human condition

• Pragmatism

  • A revolution in thinking

    • Origin of Species

    • Defined truth in a way that progressives found appealing

    • Concept of evolution which had impacted well beyond simple justifying and accumulation of wealth

    • Enabled progressives to fix notions that stood in the way of reform

• Scientific management

  • A method of improving efficiency in the workforce

The Muckrakers

• Origins

  • Attacked practices of scandals

• Magazines

  • McClure's magazine became a major success by running a series of American articles by Lincoln Steffens

  • Ida Tarbell also was another muckraker

  • Exposed political and economic corruption

• Books

  • Tenement lives by Jacob Riis →  How the Other Half Lives

  • Lincoln Steffens the shame of cities

  • The financial and the Titan portrayed the ruthlessness of an industrialist

• Decline of muckraking

  • Corporations were becoming aware of Public Image and developing a field of public relations

  • Exposed iniquities and educating the public about corruption in high places

Political Reforms in Cities and States

Voter Participation

• Australian or secret ballot →  required voters to mark their choices secretly within a private booth

• direct primaries →  placing the nominating process in the hands of voters →  able to overthrow the boss rule

• Direct election of US senators →  17th Amendment required US senators to be elected by popular vote

• The initiative, referendum, and recall

  • Initiative: method by which voters could compel the legislature to consider a bill

  • Referendum: a method that allowed citizens to vote on proposed laws printed on their ballots

  • Recall:  enabled voters to remove a corrupt or unsatisfactory politician from office by majority vote

Municipal Reform

• Controlling Public Utilities

  • Reform leaders seek to break the power of the City bosses and take utilities out of the hands of private companies

  • Cities also came known and operated gas lines, electric power plants, and urban transportation systems

• Commissions and City Managers

  • New types of municipal government or another Progressive

  • Voters elected the heads of the city departments not just the mayor

  • Manager council plan of municipal government

State Reform

• Temperance and Prohibition

  • Saloons: neighborhood headquarters of political machines with barely any sympathy for the temperance movement

  • On the other hand, people thought they should clean up morals and bottle cakes by abolishing liquor

  • By 1915 they persuaded legislatures of 2/3 of states to prohibit the sale of alcoholic beverages

• Social welfare

  • Jane Addams, Florence Kelly, and other leaders found that they needed political support from state legislators to meet the needs of immigrants and working class

  • Better schools, juvenile courts, liberalized divorce laws, safety regulations for tenements and factories, criminal justice

• Child and Woman labor

  • Progressives were most outraged by the treatment of children

  • National child labor committee proposed child labor laws that were passed by 2/3 of states

  • State compulsory School attendance laws proved effective in keeping children out of

  • Lab Florence Kelly and the Nationals Consumers League promoted state laws to protect women from long working hours

  • Many women wanted restrictions lifted so women could compete as equals with men

Political reform in the nation

• Theodore Roosevelt Square Deal→ Conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection

• Square deal for labor

  • Visible favored neither business nor labor

  • He took the step to mediate labor disputes by calling union leaders and coal mine owners to the White

  • Voters seem to approve of Roosevelt and his Square Deal by electing him in 1904

• Trust busting

  • He wanted to bust the Northern Securities Company and the case upheld Roosevelt's action in breaking up the railroad Monopoly

  • Made a distinction between breaking up bad and good corporations

• Railroad Regulation

  • Interstate Commerce Commission under the Elkins Act had greater authority to stop railroads from granting rebates to favorite customers

  • Hepburn Act: the commission could fix just and reasonable rates for railroads

• Consumer protection

  • Uptown Sinclair made the jungle describing the meat packing industry

  • The public was outraged and Congress  enacted two laws

  • The Pure Food and Drug Act: forbade the manufacturing, sale, and transportation of adulterated or mislabeled food and drugs

  • The Meat Inspection Act:  federal inspectors visit meat packing plants to ensure they met minimum standards of Sanitation

• Conservation

  • Theodore Roosevelt love conservation and wilderness

  • Forest Reserve Act helped  Roosevelt set aside 150 million acres of federal land as a national Reserve

  • Newlands Reclamation Act provides money from the sale of public land for irrigation projects in Western

  • National Conservation Commission was established to coordinate conservation

Taft's Presidency (Dollar)

• More Trust-Busting and Conservation

  • Ordered prosecution of twice the number of antitrust cases against us Steel and many more

  • Established Bureau of mines

  • Mann Elkins Act: gave Interstate Commerce Commission power to suspend new railroads rates and oversee telephone, telegraph, and cable companies

  • 16th Amendment: authorized US government to collect income tax

• Split in the Republican Party

  • Republicans were unimpressed with Taft's achievements because of

    • Payne Aldrich tariff: erase tariff on most imports

    • Pinchot Bellinger controversy:  tough stood by Cabinet member and fired Pinchot for insubordination

    • House Speaker Joe Canon

    • Midterm elections:  Republican party was split and wanted Theodore Roosevelt to become a candidate again

Rise of the Socialist Party

• Eugene V Debs:  Socialist Party founder jailed for Pullman Strike and critic of business

• Influence:

  • public ownership of utilities, 8 hour work day, pensions for employees

The Election of 1912

• Woodrow Wilson was a Democrat who believed in making changes to help regular people succeed.

• Theodore Roosevelt, the Republican, believed in making changes to help regular people.

• Woodrow Wilson became the 28th president

Woodrow Wilson's Progressive program

• Tariff reduction

  • Underwood tariff colon lowered tariffs for the first time in over 50 years

  • To compensate for reduced tariff revenues it included a graduated income tax

• Banking Reform

  • When to Congress proposes a plan for building both stability and flexibility into the US Financial system

  • Proposed a national banking system with 12 District Banks supervised by the Federal Reserve Board

  • Federal Reserve Act finally passed

• Business Regulation

  • Clayton Antitrust Act: strengthened Provisions in Sherman Antitrust Act

  • Federal Trade Commission: new regulatory agency to investigate action against unfair trade practice

• Other Reforms

  • Wilson was first opposed to any legislation to favor farmers and labor unions but was persuaded to extend his reform program

  • Federal Farm loan act: established to provide Forum loans at low-interest rates

  • Child labor act: prohibited the shipment in interstate commerce of products manufactured by children under 14 years old but later struck down to be constitutional

African Americans in the Progressive Era

• The status of African-Americans declined since the reconstruction

• Plessy vs. Ferguson: separate but equal conditions in South

• Many considered lower terrorists to be more important than anti-lynching laws

• Washington's stress on economics

  • Atlanta exposition speech: argued that block needs for education and economic progress were most important

• Du Bois’ stress on civil rights

  • Demanded equal rights for African Americans arguing political and social rights were a prerequisite for economic independence

The Great Migration

• African Americans move steadily toward the North

• Motives

  • Deteriorating racial relations

  • Deconstruction of cotton crops by Boll Weevil

  • Job opportunities in Northern factories due to World War I

Civil Rights Organizations

• Du Bios met up with black intellectuals in Niagara Falls to discuss a program of protest and action to secure equal rights for blacks known as the Niagara Movement

• Niagara Movement founded the National Association for Advancement of colored people to abolish all forms of segregation and increase educational opportunities

• National Urban League to help people migrate from South to Northern cities

Women, Suffrage, and the Progressive Movement

• Militant suffragists

  • Militant approach to gaining vote by pickets, parades, hunger strikes

  • National Women's Party broke from NAWSA to win the support of Congress and the President for an Amendment to the content

• 19th Amendment: guaranteed women's right to vote in all elections

• Other Issues

  • Birth control →  Planned Parenthood organization

  • Educational equality, marriage and divorce laws, reducing discrimination, and rights to own property

World War 1 and Its Aftermath (1914-1920)

Sequence of events

• June 28th colon Serbian nationalist assassinates Fransic Ferinand → heir to the Austo-Hungarian empire

• July 23rd: Austrian government issues threatening war against Serbia and invades country 4 days later

• July 31st: Russia orders its Army to mobilize against Austria

• August 1st: Germany declares war against Russia

• August 3rd: Germany declares war against France and begins an invasion of neutral Belgium

• August 4th: Great Britain declares war against German

Neutrality

• Belligerent Powers tried to stop supplies from reaching the enemy

• Great Britain declared a Naval blockade against Germany

• Wilson protested the British seizure of American ships as a violation of neutrality

• Submarine warfare

  • Lusitania crisis

    • German Torpedoes hit and sink the British passenger liner Lusitania and most passengers drowned including Americans

    • Wilson sent Germany a strong-boarded diplomatic message warning Germany would be held accountably if it continued its

    • William Jennings Bryan objected message and resigned from the president's cabinet

  • Other sinkings

    • More Americans lost lives due to a submarine war attack

    • Germany kept its word to not attack passenger ships without warning

    • German Torpedoes truck Sussex ship enduring American passengers

    • Wilson threaten to cut off our diplomatic relations with Germany

    • Germany back down

• Economic Links with Britain and France

  • US economic support was going to take one side of the war with the Allies while German trade  dwindled

  • Loans

    • Allies could not Finance the purchase of everything needed so the US government permitted JP Morgan and other Bankers to extend as much as 3 billion insecure credit to Britain and France

• Public opinion

  • Perceived Germany as a cruel bully

  • Ethnic influences

    • First and second-generation immigrants made up over 30% of the US population

    • Irish Americans and German Americans supported Central

    • Italian Americans cheered allies

    • Americans tended to sympathize with Britain and France because of democratic gov

  • British War propaganda

    • British commanded war news

    • British government major American Press was supplied with German soldiers committing atrocities in Belgium

• The war debate

  • Republicans from the East argued for our entry into the war against Germany

  • Foreign policy realists believe that German victory would change the balance of power

• Preparedness

  • Wilson opposed the call for preparedness but changed his policy

  • National Defense Act: increased the regular army to a force of nearly 175,000

• Opposition to war

  • Many Americans in Midwest and West opposed preparedness fearing US involvement in war

  • Actively campaigned against any military buildup

• Election of 1916

  • Charles Evans Hughes, Republican candidate

  • Wilson kept us out of War Democrat campaign

  • Peace efforts

    • Mediation was turned aside by both allies and central powers

Decision for War

• Only one month after being sworn into office Wilson asked for a declaration of war against the German

• Unrestricted submarine war

  • Germany became aware of the risk to the US that by cutting off supplies to allies they could win the war before Americans could react

  • Germany communicated its decision to the US government but Wilson broke off us diplomatic ties

• Zimmerman Telegram →  secret offer made by Germany to Mexico to Ally itself with Germany and return for lost territories

• Russian Revolution

  • Triumph of democracy

  • overthrowing the czar

• Renewed submarine attacks

  • German submarines sank five unarmed us Merchant ships

  • Brings up the idea of freedom of the seas

• Declaration of war

  • Wilson stood in front of Congress to declare war on Germany and declared the world must be made safe for democracy

Mobilization

• Industry and labor

  • Extensive contracts to help win

  • Herbert Hoover took charge of the Food Administration encouraging Americans to eat less meat and bread to ship abroad for French and British troops

  • Harry Garfield volunteered to head Feul Administration to save coal

  • William Mcadoo headed Railroad Administration to coordinate traffic and promote standardized railroad equipment

  • Taft helped arbitrate disputes between workers and employers as head of the National War Labor Board

• Finance

  • government Ministries 33 billion dollars in two years by loans and taxes

• Public opinion and civil liberties

  • War hysteria and patriotic enthusiasm provided an excuse for nativist groups to take out prejudices

  • Espionage and Sedition Acts→ Imprisonment of persons who try to incite rebellion in the Armed Forces +  prohibit someone from making disloyal or abusive remarks about the government

  • Schenck v. US:  Supreme Court → upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Acts + free speech could be limited when it presented a clear and present danger to Public Safety

• Armed Forces

  • Selective Service Act:  government required all men between 21 and 30 to register for induction into Army through a democratic method

  • African-Americans →  racial segregation applied to Army +  World safer democracy would earn equal rights at home when the war ended

Effects on American Society

• More Jobs for Women

  • As men were drafted into military jobs vacated and were taken by women which pushed Congress to support the 19th Amendment

• Migration of Mexicans and African Americans

  • Most was employed in the Southwest but  many traveled to Midwest and North for factory jobs

Fighting the War

• Naval operations

  • Merchant ships Bound for Britain sunk at a big rate

  • The US responded to undertake a record settings program of ship Construction and  convoy system of armed escorts for a group of merchant ships

• American Expeditionary Force

  • Commanded by General John J Pershing

  • Last German Offensive → Americans stopped the German advance and struck back with counter-attacked at Belleau Wood

  • Drive to Victory

    • Allied offensive along the Meuse River and through Argonne Forest succeeded in driving German Army backward to the German border

    • November 11th, 1918, Germans signed an armistice which agreed to surrender their arms, give up much of their navy, and evacuate occupied territory

  • US Casualties → Deaths: 49,000 + Disease → 112,432

Making the Peace

• Woodrow Wilson  presented Congress with a detailed list of War aims known as the 14 points

• The 14 Points

  • Recognition of Freedom of the Seas

  • The practice of making secret treaties

  • Reduction of national armaments

  • Impartial adjustment of colonial claims

  • Self-determination

  • Removal of trade barriers

  • Association of Nations → LEAGUE OF NATIONS

• The Treaty of Versailles

  • Wilson went to Paris on January 1919 for a diplomatic conference to defend 14 points

  • The Big Four

    • Did not share Wilson's idealism and reluctantly agreed to compromise on most of the 14 points

  • Peace terms

    • Disarmament of Germany and colonies in Asia and Africa

    • Self-determination principles

    • The international peacekeeping Organization is known as the League of Nations

The Battle for Ratification

• Increased Partisanship After War

  • Winning Senate ratification was difficult

  • Republicans had one solid majority in House and Senate

  • Wilson needed to convince Republicans to ratify the Treaty of Versailles but face hostility from Henry Cabot Lodge

• Opponents: Irreconcilables and Reservationists

  • Irreconcilable:  could not accept our membership in a league

  • Reservationist: would accept the League of Nations if reservations were added to the covenant

  • Wilson choose to fight

• Wilson Wilson's Western Tour and Breakdown

  • Believing that his policy could prevail Wilson  boarded a train and went on

  • September 25, 1919, he collapsed after giving a speech in Colorado but suffered a massive stroke when he returned to Washington

• Rejection of the treaty

  • Senate defeated the treaty without reservations and joined with irreconcilables and defeating the treaty a second time

  • After Wilson left office the US made peace with Germany but didn't ratify the Versailles treaty nor joined the League of  Nations

• Post-war problems

  • Americans had trouble adjusting to the patriotic forever of wartime with stresses of post-war uncertainties

Demobilization

• 4 million men were taken from civilian life for draft

• business boom went flat as Factory orders for were production fell off

• European farm products back on the Market which hurt us farmers

• Consumers went on a buying flea leading to inflation and a short boom

• Business plunged into recession and 10% unemployed

The Red Scare

• Combination of unhappiness with the peace process and fears of communism from Russia

• Field xenophobia resulting in restrictions on immigration

• Palmer Raids: Michelle Palmer ordered the mass arrest of anarchist, socialist, and Labor agitators many were arrested based on limited criminal evidence

Labor Conflict

• Strikes of 1919 → Higher pay and unionization

Race Riots

• African Americans in Northern cities increased racial tensions

• Whites resented increased competition for jobs and housing

• This led to violence in many cities, especially in Chicago

• Returning African-American soldiers led to an increase in racial violence and lynchings by whites

The Modern Era of the 1920s

Republican Control

• Business Doctrine: death of Roosevelt with disillusionment over the war lead to accepting the idea of limited government regulation as an aid to stabilize the business

The Presidency of Warren Harding

• A Few Good Choices

  • Hurting recognized limitations and appointed meant to his cabinet

  • Charles Evans Hughes → Secretary of State

  • Herbert Hoover → Secretary of Commerce

  • Andrew Melon → Secretary of Treasury

• Domestic policy

  • Reduction on the income of tax

  • Increase in tariff rates under the Fordney McCumber tariff act

  • Establishment of the Bureau of the Budget

• Scandals and Death

  • His presidency was marked by scandals and Corruption

  • Secretary of Interior Albert B fall and attorney general Harry M Daugherty accepted bribes for granting oil leases near Teapot Dome

  • Harding died suddenly while traveling in the West

The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge

• Hardings Vice President

• Election of 1924

  • Rep: Coolidge

  • Dem: John W. Davis

  • Progressive: Robert La Follette

  • Coolidge won

• Vetoes and inaction

  • Coolest believed in limited government

  • Cutting spending to the Bone plus vetoed x a republican majority in Congress

  • Would not allow bonuses for World War I veterans and vetoed a bill to help farmers as crop prices fell

Hoover, Smith, and the Election of 1928

• Rep: Herbert Hoover

• Dem: Alfred E. Smith

• Hoover won

Mixed Economic Development

• Post-war recession included a lengthy period of business prosperity and ended with economic disaster

• Causes of Business Prosperity

  • Increased productivity

  • Energy Technologies

  • government policy

• Consumer economy

  • Electricity and homes enabled Americans to purchase consumer appliances of the decade

  • Monthly payments began and consumers  bought things they could barely afford and curtailed buying

• Impact of the automobile

  • Automobile drastically crew and replaced the railroad industry as a key promoter of economic growth

  • Other Industries depended on automobile sales

Farm problems

• Crop prices from 1916 through 1918 were kept High by wartime demand and wartime policy

• Increased production by new technologies in the 1920s increased debts and growing surpluses

Labor problems

• Wages Rose during the 1920s but union membership declined

• Welfare capitalism:  voluntarily offering employees improve benefits and higher wages to reduce interest in organizing unions

• Companies used police, state militias, and local mobs to resist unionization

a new culture

• More than half of the American population lived in urban areas

• The culture of cities was based on popular taste

• Moralists blamed automobile for a breakdown of morals

The Jazz Age

• African American musicians became a symbol of the new and modern culture of cities

• Entertainment:  radio stations +  movies became a popular form of leisure

• Popular Heroes

  • William Jennings Bryan, Theodore Roosevelt, and Woodrow Wilson were Heroes before

  • Sports superstars, movie superstars, and more became heroes

Gender Roles, Family, and Education

• 19th Amendment did not change women's lives or US politics

• The woman at home →  traditional separation of Labor between men and women continued

• Women in the labor force →  remained the same as before the war

• Revolution in morals →  revolt against sexual taboos

• Divorce →  as a result of women's suffrage lawmakers were now forced to listen to feminists and demanded changes in divorce laws to permit women to escape abusive husbands

• Education →  belief in the value of Education with economic Prosperity stimulated compulsory school laws

The Literature of Alienation

• Condemning sacrifices of the war and fraud perpetuated by money interests or two dominant themes and writers of the post-work decade

• Art and architecture →  Fusion of Art and Technology created a new profession

• Harlem Renaissance → period of rich cross-disciplinary artistic and cultural activity among African Americans

• Poets and musicians →  commenting on African-American heritage

• Marcus Garvey →  United Negro Improvement Association that advocated individual and racial Pride for African Americans and developed political ideas of black nationalism

Values in Conflict

• Religion

  • Modernism →  Protestants Define their faith in new ways and look at the historical and critical view of certain passages in the Bible

  • Fundamentalism →  Protestant preachers condemned modernism and believed that every word in Bible must be accepted as literally true

  • Revivalists on the radio →  please fundamentalism message

• Scopes trial

  • Tennessee outlawed the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution

  • John Scopes, a biology teacher, taught the theory of evolution to a high school class and was arrested and tried in 1925

  • William Jennings Bryan represented Fundamentalist

  • Scopes was convicted but overturned on a technicality

• Prohibition

  • Defying the law

    • Speakeasies were common and did not stop people from drinking alcohol

    • Al Capone fought for control of the lucrative bootlegging trade

  • Political Discord and repeal

    • Republicans supported the noble experiment of prohibition

    • Democrats were divided on the issue with Southerners supporting it in Northerners calling for repeal

    • Supporters of the 18th Amendment pointed to the decline in alcoholism

    • 21st Amendment:  repealed 18th and millions celebrated

Nativism

• quota laws

  • Quota of 1921:  limited immigration to 3% of foreign-born persons from a nation

  • Quota Act of 1924: limited immigration to 2%

  • Japanese immigrants bard

  • Canadians and Latin Americans were exempt from restrictions

• Case of Sacco and Vanzetti

  • Anarchists, believing that social justice would come only through the destruction of governments

  • Parked national and international outrage, the biases of the judge, prosecution, and jurors were markedly anti-immigrant

Ku Klux Klan

• The extreme expression of nativism in the 1920s

• Tactics

  • Employed various methods for terrorizing and intimidating anyone targeted as an American

• Decline

  • Grand Dragon David Stephenson, leader of Indiana's clan, was convicted of murder, and membership rapidly declined

Foreign Policy: The Fiction of Isolation

• Disarmament and peace

  • Washington conference:  relief tensions resulted from discussions

    • 5-power treaty: ratio with respect to large warships

    • 4 power treaty: respect one another territory in the Pacific

    • 9-power treaty:  agreed to respect open door policy by guaranteeing the territorial Integrity of China

  • Kellogg-Briand Pact: agreement to outlaw war signed on August 27, 1928, but was ineffective

Business and diplomacy

• Latin America

  • Mexico's Constitution mandated government ownership of all that nation's mineral and oil resources

  • US investors in Mexico feared the government might confiscate their property

  • A resolution protecting their interests was negotiated by the college’s ambassador

  • US troops in Nicaragua and Haiti

• Middle East

  • Oil reserves in the Middle East were becoming recognized as a potential wealth

• Tariffs

  • Fordney McCumber Tariff:  increase duties on foreign manufactured goods by 25%

  • the weakened world economy and international trade

War Debts and Reparations

• Dawes plan: Germany's annual reparation payments would be reduced, increasing over time as its economy improved; the full amount to be paid, however, was left undetermined

• Legacy:

  • Finland was the only nation to repay its War debts

The Great Depression and the New Deal

Causes and effects of the Depression, 1929 to 1933

• Wall Street Crash: the long period of speculation that preceded it, during which millions of people invested their savings or borrowed money to buy stocks, pushing prices to unsustainable levels

• Black Thursday and Black Tuesday → (Black Thrudasy October 24, 1929) unprecedented volume of selling on Wall Street and stock prices plunged

• Hope to stave off disaster a group of bankers bought millions of dollars in stocks

• On Black Tuesday, October 29th, the bottom fell out, millions of panicky investors ordered their Brokers to sell but no buyers could be found

• After that Wall Street kept going down

Causes of the crash

• Uneven distribution of income, and stock market speculation

• Excessive use of credit,  overproduction of consumer goods,  weak farm economy, gov policies, and global economic problems

Effects

• Ended Republican domination of the government

• The social effects of the depression were felt by all class

• Poverty and homelessness increased

• Mortgage foreclosures and evictions became commonplace

• Homeless traveled in boxcars and lived in

• Hoovervilles were made to mock the honor of their president

Hoover policies

• He believed that government shouldn't intervene too much and that depression would get resolved on its own

responding to a worldwide depression

• Debt Moratorium: conditions became bad in Europe and we that wore debt collection could no longer continue

• Reconstruction Finance Corporation:  federally funded government-owned Corporation as a measure to prop up faltering railroads Banks life insurance companies and other financial institutions

Despair and protest

• Unrest on farms

  • Farmers banded together to stop Bank from foreclosing on farms and evicting people from their homes

• Bonus March

  • 1,000 unemployed  World War I veterans march to Washington DC to demand immediate payment of bonuses promised at a later date

  • Hoover ordered Army to break up the encampment

Election of 1932

• Dems: Franklin D. Roosevelt

• Reps: Hoover

• Hoover as lame duck president:  Hoover was powerless to cope with depression which continued to get worse

• Roosevelt Won

Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal

• Disability:  Roosevelt was paralyzed by polio

• Eleanor Roosevelt:  emerged as a leader in her own right and  became the most active first lady in history

New Deal philosophy

• The three r's →  recovery,  relief,  reform

• Reform in the form of regulation

• Brain Trust and other advisors →  Roosevelt turn into a group of University professors known as Brain Trust to help him combat depression

the first hundred days

• Bank holiday:  on March 6th, 1933 Banks would close and only reopen after allowing enough time for the government to reorganize them on a sound basis

• Repeal of prohibition:  ratification of the 21st Amendment repealed the 18th Amendment

• Fireside Chats:  Roosevelt went on the radio on March 12th, 1933 to represent his fireside chats to the American people

• Financial recovery and reform programs

  • Emergency Banking relief act: authorized the government to examine the finances of banks closed during bank holidays and reopen those judged to be sound

  • Glass-Steagall Act: increased regulation of the banks and limited how Banks could invest customers’ money

  • Homeowners loan corporation:  provided refinancing of small homes to prevent foreclosures

  • Farm Credit Administration: provided low-interest Farm rates and mortgages to formers

• relief for the unemployed

  • Federal emergency relief administration: offered outride grants of federal money to States and local governments

  • Public Works Administration: allotted money to State and local governments for building railroads, bridges, dams, and other Public Works

  • Civilian Conservation Corps:  employed young men on projects on federal lands and paid their families small monthly sums

  • **Tennessee Valley Authority'**s huge experiment and Regional development and public  planning+ hired thousands of people to build dams and operate electric power plants

• Industrial recovery program

  • National Recovery Administration was established to guarantee reasonable profits for businesses and fair wages and hours for labor

  • Gave workers the right to organize and bargain collectively later declared unconstitutional

• Farm production control program

  • Agricultural Adjustment Administration: encouraged Farmers to reduce production by offering government pay for every acre they plowed under

• Other programs of the first New Deal

  • Civil Works Administration: hired laborers for temporary construction jobs sponsored by the federal government

  • The Securities and Exchange Commission was created to regulate this dog market and place restrictions on the kind of speculative practices that led to the Wall Street Crash

  • Federal housing administration: gave both the construction industry and homeowners a boost by ensuring bank loans for building new houses and repairing old ones

  • A new law took the United States off the gold standard to Halt deflation and the value of a dollar was set as $35 per ounce of gold but paper dollars were no longer redeemable in gold

The Second New Deal

• In the summer of 1935, he launched the second new deal which concentrated on relief and reform

• FDR won the landslide other than Vermont as many people went Democrat

relief programs

• Works Progress Administration: employed most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered

• National Youth Administration: provided part-time jobs to help young people stay in high school and college

• Resettlement Administration: provided loans to sharecroppers, tenants, and small farmers+ established Federal camps where migrant workers could find decent housing

Reforms

• National Labor Relations Act:  replaced labor provisions of the National Industrial Recovery Act after it was declared unconstitutional +  guaranteed a worker's right to join a union and a Union's right to bargain collectively +  unfair business practices

• Rural electrification Administration:  provided loans for electrical cooperatives to supply power in rural areas

• Federal taxes:  significantly decrease the tax on incomes of the wealthy few

The Social Security

• Social Security Act: created a federal insurance program based on the automatic collection of payments from employees and employers throughout people working careers

• Used to make monthly payments to retired persons over the age of 65 receiving benefits

• Workers who lost their jobs, blind or disabled, dependent children of their brothers

Election of 1936

• Rep: Alf Landon

• Dem: Roosevelt

• Results: Roosevelt won

Critics

Liberal critics

• Criticize the New Deal for doing too much for business and little for the unemployed and Working Poor

Conservative critics

• Attack the New Deal for giving the federal government too much power by increasing regulations,  pro-union stance, and financing of government programs

Demagogues

• Father Charles E. Coughlin

  • Catholic priests attracted a huge following through weekly radio broadcasts for issuing and inflated currency and nationalizing all banks

  • Made attacks on New Deal

• Dr. Francis E. Townsend

  • Propose that a 2% federal sales tax could be used to create a special friend

  • Argued recipients would stimulate the economy and soon bring depression to an end

• Huey Long (kingfish)

  • Prominent National figure by proposing the Sharon Wild program that promised a minimum annual income of $5,000 for every American family to be paid for by taxing the wealthy

The Supreme Court

• Court reorganization plan:  proposed that the president be authorized to appoint the Supreme Court and additional Justice for each current Justice older than 70 and a half years (allowed Roosevelt to add up to six more justices to the court)

• Reaction →  Republicans and Democrats were outraged at what they saw and attempt to tamper with a system of checks and balances

• Aftermath →  Court Justices were already backing off their former resistance to this program

• Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of several major New Deal Laws including the Wagner Act(admitted refugee children to the US outside of immigration quotas) and the Social Security Act

Rise of Unions

• Formation of the C.I.O

  • Born out of a fundamental dispute within the United States labor movement over whether and how to organize industrial workers

Strikes

• Automobiles

  • General motor plant strike: Workers insisted on the right to join a union by participating in a sit-down strike

  • Company yielded to Strikers’ demands by recognizing United Auto Workers Union

• Steel

  • On Memorial Day 1937, a demonstration by union picketers a Republic Steel in Chicago and did to four deaths as police fired into the crowd

Fair labor standards Act

• Minimum wage fixed at 40 cents an hour

• Maximum standard work week of 40 hours with extra pay for overtime

• Child labor restrictions on hiring people under 16 years old

Last Phase of the New Deal

• Causes: government policy was to blame for reducing spending on relief

• Keynesian economics:  deficit spending was helpful in times because the government needed to spend well above its tax revenues to initiate economic growth

Weakened New deal

• 1938 elections brought a reduced Democratic majority in Congress

• A coalition of Republicans and conservative Democrats blocked New Deal reforms and legislation

• Fears about the aggressive acts of Nazi Germany diverted attention

Life During the Depression

• Woman

  • Added precious replaced on the family as an employee father's searched for work

  • Were accused of taking jobs from Men

  • New Deal programs allowed women to receive lower pay than men

  • Voted democrats are new deal was helping them

• Dust Bowl farmers

  • Dust Bowl: the result of poor farming practices coupled with the high winds

  • Okies: Migrated Westward to California in search of former factory work

  • Grapes of wealth:  wrote about hardships of OKIES farmers

  • STARTED VOTING DEMOCRAT AFTER RELIEF FOR FARMERS

• African Americans

  • Racial discrimination continued with lynching and unemployment

  • Black sharecroppers were forced off the land to cut back form production

  • Hard Times increased racial tensions in the south

  • Civil rights leaders could get little support from President Roosevelt

  • AFRICAN AMERICANS STARTED VOTING DEMOCRAT AFTER RELIEF FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS (NORTHERNERS)

  • Southern black affected by tenant farming loss

• Improvements

  • WPA and the CCC provided low-paying jobs for African Americans

  • African Americans appointed to middle-level positions in federal departments by Roosevelt

  • Mary McLeod Bethune:  established Federal Council on negro affairs for increasing African-American involvement in the New Deal

• Fair Employment Practices Committee

  • An executive order in 1941 set up a committee to assist minorities in gaining jobs in the defense industry

American Indians

• Indian Recoganizaition Act: repealed Dawes Act of 1887 + returned lands to the control of the tribes and supported preservation

• Critics accused New Deal of being paternalistic and withholding control from American Indians

Mexican Americans

• Suffer discrimination

• The principal source of Agriculture labor in the 1920s but during the depression high unemployment and drought cost dramatic growth  in white migrant workers who pushed West in search of work

• Competition for jobs Forest Mexican Americans to return to Mexico

Diplomacy and World War II, 1929-1945

Herbert Hoover's foreign policy → The US should not enter into firm commitments to preserve the security of other nations (isolationism)

Japanese Aggression in Manchuria

• Japan defied the open-door policy and the League of Nations and marched into Manchuria in September 1931 and established a  puppet government

• Japanese delegation walked out of the league never to return

• League of Nations showed an ability to maintain peace and an inability to be taken seriously

• Stimson Doctrine: US  response to Japan's violation of the open door policy,  declared that the United States would honor its treaty obligations under nine power treaty by refusing to recognize their images see of any regime like Manchukuo

Latin America

• Arranged for U.S troops to leave Nicaragua by 1933 and negotiated a treaty with Haiti to remove all US troops by 1934

Franklin Roosevelt's Policies, 1933 to 1938

• Good Neighbor Policy: emphasized cooperation and trade rather than military force to maintain stability in the hemisphere

• Pan American conferences

  • pledge never again to intervene in Internal Affairs of a Latin American country

  • Roosevelt pledged to submit future disputes to arbitration and warned that if a European power such as Germany attempted to commit acts of aggression against us it would find safety for the mutual good

• Cuba →  resented Platt Amendment causing President Roosevelt to persuade Congress to nullify the Platt Amendment

• Mexico →  test is US patients to Good Neighbor policy when Cardenas seized oil properties owned by US corporations

Economic Diplomacy

• recognition of the Soviet Union →  Roosevelt recognized the communist regime to increase U.S trade and boost the economy

• Philippines→ Governing the Philippines cost money so the Tydings-McDuffie Act: provided for the independence of the Philippines

• Reciprocal trade agreements→  plan that gave power to the president to reduce Utah tariff rates up to 50% for Nations that reciprocated with comparable reductions for US imports

Events Abroad: Fascism and Aggressive Militarism

• Italy

  • Benito Mussolini LED Italy's fascist party which attracted dissatisfied War veterans and those afraid of rising communism

  • Marched on Rome and installed Mussolinian power

  • Fascism: the idea that people should glorify their nation and race through an aggressive show of force

• Germany

  • The Nazi Party arose in the 1920s to deplorable economic conditions

  • Adolf Hitler used bullying tactics against Jews as well as the fastest ideology to increase popularity with disgruntled workers

  • Hitler gain control of the German legislature in 1933

• Japan

  • As economic conditions were sent they persuaded Japan to invade China and Southeast Asia to give control over the greater Asia co-prosperity sphere

American isolationist

• The lesson of World War I

  • American thought entering World War I was a terrible mistake and wanted to stay away from World War II

• Neutrality Acts

  • Neutrality Act of 1935:  authorized the president to prohibit all arms shipments and prohibit US citizens to travel on ships of belligerent nations

  • Neutrality Act of 1936:  forbade the extension of loans and credits to belligerents

  • Neutrality Act of 1937:  for bad shipment of arms to opposing sides in the Civil War in Spain

• Spanish Civil War

  • Ideological struggle between the forces of fascism (Franco)  and republicanism

  • Roosevelt sympathize with loyalists but could not Aid them so fastest prevailed and established a military dictatorship

• America's first committee

  • Isolationists were alarmed by Roosevelt's Pro British policies

  • Formed America's first committee

  • Engaged speakers such as Charles Lindbergh traveled the country warning against re-engaging in Europe's troubles

Prelude to the war

• Appeasement

  • Ethiopia, 1935:  Mussolini ordered Italian troops to invade Ethiopia,  League of Nations did nothing to stop the aggressor

  • Rhineland 1936:  region in Western Germany was supposed to be demilitarized according to the Versailles treaty but Hitler defied the treaty in order for German troops to March into Rhineland

  • China 1937: full-scale war between Japan and China erupted,  Japan attacked us by gunboat but apologized

  • Sudetenland:  Hitler took over today the land but prime minister Chamberlain and the French president with Roosevelt's support met with Hitler and Mussolini allowing Hitler to take the city and land unopposed (Munich pact + appeasement)

  • Quarantine speech:  Roosevelt recognized the dangers of fastest aggression and proposed democracies act together to quarantine aggressors

  • Preparedness:  Roosevelt argued for neutrality and an arms build-up at the same time

From Neutrality to War, 1937 to 1941

The outbreak of war in Europe

• Invasion of Poland:  German tanks and plains became a full-scale invasion of Poland and we're at war with its Axis allies

• Blitzkrieg:  overwhelming use of air power and fast-moving tanks

Changing U.S. Policy

• Cash & Carry: Provided that a belligerent could buy arms if used their own ships and paid cash

• Selective Service Act:  compulsory military service draft (peacetime draft)

• Destroyers for bases deal:  right to build military bases on British islands in the Caribbean

• Lend Lease Act: lend or lease war supplies to any nation deemed "vital to the defense of the United States." (British and Soviet Union)

Election of 1940

• Dem: Roosevelt

• Rep: Wendel Willkie

• Results: Roosevelt won

Arsenal of Democracy

• 4 freedoms: Roosevelt Justified lending money to Britain for the purchase of War materials but arguing nations defend four freedoms

• Lend-lease Act:  proposed ending Cash & Carry requirements of the Neutrality Act and permitting Britain to obtain arms needed on credit

• Atlantic Charter:  Roosevelt and Winston Churchill meeting that drew a document that affirmed general principles for sound peace after War

• shoot on sight:  Roosevelt extended support for the British even further by protecting his ships from submarine attacks

Disputes with Japan

• US economic action: after Japan joined Axis Roosevelt responded by prohibiting the export of Steel and scrap iron to countries except Britain and nations of the Western Hemisphere

• Negotiations

  • Both sides realize that Japan needed oil to feel its Navy and Air Force

  • If the embargo didn't end Japan would likely see its oil resources and Dutch East Indies

  • Hell insisted that Japan pull out its troops from China which Japan refused to do

  • Hideki Tojo  made an attempt to negotiate an agreement but changed its positions

  • Japan was limited because of its limited oil supplies

Pearl Harbor

• A surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Hawaii

• American people were stunned by the attack and wanted to go to war

• declaration of war:  Roosevelt convinced Congress to declare war upon Japan and soon Japan declared war on us and the Axis powers declared war on the US

• Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union

• Churchill, Stalin, and Roosevelt agreed to concentrate on the war in Europe before shifting resources to counter Japanese advances in the Pacific

World War II: The Home Front

Mobilization

• Federal government: organized a number of special agencies to mobilize US economic and Military resources for wartime crises such as were production board and office of War mobilization

• Depression was dwarfed by deficits incurred during the war, not by New Deal

• Business and Industry

  • stimulated by wartime demand and government contracts US industry had a boom

• Research and Development

  • The government was close with universities and research labs to improve Technologies to defeat the enemy (MANHATTAN PROJECT)

• Workers and Unions

  • Labor unions and large corporations agreed that there would be no strikes in time of War

• financing the war

  • The government paid for its huge increase in spending by increasing the income tax and selling war bonds

• Wartime Propaganda

  • The campaign of posters, songs, and use bulletins was primarily to maintain public morale and encourage people to conserve resources and increase war production

The Wars Impact on Society

• African Americans

  • Attracted by jobs in the north and west left us out

  • NAACP  membership increased during the war

  • CORE:  worked more militantly for African American interests

  • Roosevelt administration issued an executive order to prohibit discrimination in government and in businesses that received Federal contracts → unconstitutional

• Mexican Americans

  • worked in defense Industries and served in the military

  • Braceros:  entered America in harvest season without going through formal immigration procedures

  • Zoot riots:  whites and Mexican Americans battled on the streets

• American Indians

  • Served in the military and worked in defense industries

• Japanese Americans

  • Forest on to internment camps

  • Korematsu v. US:  upheld internment policy as justified in Wartime (Executive Order 9066)

  • In 1988 federal government agreed the ruling was just an awarded financial compensation to those alive that had been interned

• Woman

  • Served in Army, navy, and Marines in non-combat rules

  • 5 million women entered Workforce in industrial jobs and defense plans

  • Rosie the Riveter was used to encourage women to take defense jobs

• Wartime Solidarity:

  • New Deal helped immigrant groups feel included

  • Wartime migrations also help soften Regional differences in open the eyes of Americans to the injustice of racial discrimination

Election of 1944

• FDR won again as people thought the president shouldn’t change during wartime

World War II: The Battlefronts

Fighting Germany

• Defense at Sea, attacks by air

  • Overcoming the Menace of German submarines in the Atlantic

  • Beginning bombing raids in German cities

  • American bombers carried strategic bombing raids on Military Targets in Europe

• From North Africa to Italy

  • Allies had the daunting task of driving German occupying forces out of advanced positions in North Africa and the Mediterranean

  • Mussolini fell from power but Hitler's forces rescued him and gave him nominal control of Northern Italy

• from D-Day to Victory in Europe

  • Allied Drive delivery in France begins June 6th, 1944

  • D-Day: brought together the land, air, and sea forces of the allied armies in what became known as the largest invasion force in human history

  • German Surrender And Discovery of the Holocaust

    • Allied bombing raiding over Germany had reduced industrial capacity

    • US troops advanced through Germany and came upon German concentration camps and witnessed the Nazi’s program of genocide

Fighting Japan

• Turning Point 1942: War in the Pacific dominated by naval battling, inc=tercepting and decoding messages to destroy Japanese carriers in the BATTLE OF MIDWAY

• Island-Hopping: US began striking Japan’s home islands by seizing locations in the Pacific

• Major Battles

  • Japanese conquered the Philippines when MacArthur was driven from the islands

  • Battle of Leyte Gulf → Japanese navy was destroyed

  • Japanese used Kamikaze pilots to make suicide attacks

• Atomic Bomb

  • Manhattan Project: Robert Oppenheimer, developed the atomic bomb (tested in New Mexico)

  • Harry Truman called on Japan to surrender unconditionally or face destruction

  • On August 6, A-bomb dropped on Hiroshima

  • On August 9, a bomb dropped on Nagasaki

• Japan Surrenders

  • Within a week after 2nd a-bomb Japan agreed to surrender its Allied allowed the emperor to remain as head of state

Wartime Conferences

• Casablanca: Whether to focus military attacks on the Axis powers in Europe coming up through Italy or to launch an attack on the European mainland across the English Channel?

• Teheran: big 3 met and agreed that the British and Americans would begin their drive to liberate France in Spring + soviets would invade Germany and join hands with Japan

• Yalta: big 3 met after victory in Europe

  • Germany would be divided

  • Free elections in liberated countries

  • Soviets would join the war against Japan

  • Soviets would control the southern half of the islands in the Pacific and have special concessions in Manchuria

  • A new world peace org would be formed

• Death of President Roosevelt

  • April 12, 1945 death while resting in a home in GA

  • Harry S. Truman entered the presidency

• Potsdam

  • Big 3 agreed to demand that Japan surrendered unconditionally and hold trials for war crimes Nazis

The War’s Legacy

• Cost → 300,000 lost lives, 800,000 wounded

The United Nations

• Congress accepted peacekeeping organization

• Allied reps proposed international org to be called United Nations

• In April 1945, delegates from 50 nations assembled in San Fransico to draft a charter for the UN

Expectations

• The US became one of the most prosperous and powerful nations in the world + played a key role in defeating Fascist dictators

• Now people looked forward with optimism + a democratic world

• The Soviet Union and A-bomb would soon dim expectations