Psyc 3403

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Empirical Methods

• Types of Empirical Methods:

  • Direct (DV): Cannot be manipulated.

  • Indirect (IV): Can be manipulated.

• Experiment: A strategy of empirical investigation aimed to understand human behavior.

Goals of Psychology

1. Describe Behavior:

   • Initial task to describe behavior.

   • Example: Human aggression - understanding its nature.

2. Explain Behavior:

   • Identify causes of behavior.

   • Example: The causes behind the actions of admired public figures who struggle with mental illness.

3. Predict Behavior:

   • Use of standardized tests for predicting the likelihood of success in situations like college.

4. Control Behavior:

   • To influence or change behavior to create positive improvements.

Research Methods

• Goals:

  • Description: Self-explanatory, gathering details.

  • Prediction: Utilizing regression reports via questionnaires to show probabilities.

  • Explanation: Finding causal relationships in behavior.

  • Control: Focus on controlled experimental research efforts.

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Independent and Dependent Variables

• Independent Variable (IV): Example includes physical attractiveness.

  • Interaction with subjects and confederates.

• Dependent Variable (DV): Reflects human behavior.

  • Investigates if attractiveness influences behaviors or attitudes.

• Data Organization:

  • Statements should summarize, organize, and explain the IV's effects on the DV.

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Theories of Human Behavior

• Definition of a Theory:

  1. A phenomenon of interest.

  2. A storehouse of information summarizing what is known about psychological phenomena.

  3. Based on extensive current research, with the understanding that new info will emerge.

  4. Theories evolve; they are not absolute truths.

• Modification of Theories:

  • Theories can be rejected when they become inaccurate over time due to new findings.

• Example: Frustration-Aggression Theory - how initial research supported it but newer findings indicate inaccuracies.

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Revising Theories

• Theories are revised with new information or findings.

• Research studies may start without a theory to discover new relationships.

• Importance of testing existing theories for accuracy through continuous research.

• Examples of alternative theories:

  • Berkowitz’s Theory of Aggression, Self-perception Theory, and Self-Affirmation Theory.

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Research Connections

• Convergence of Evidence:

  • Different sources supporting the same conclusion enhances reliability.

• Program of Research: A series of evaluations building on specific topics.

• Hypothesis Development:

  • Hypotheses can arise from observations or issues, not strictly from theories.

• Experimental Design:

  • Formulates hypotheses and shapes data collection strategy.

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Hypothesis Types

• A Priori Hypothesis: Predictions made before data collection.

• Posthoc Hypothesis: Predictions formulated after reviewing results.

• Sampling: Selecting a representative sample according to population characteristics.

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Data Formats

• Data Representation:

  • Qualitative Data: Non-numerical data informing experiments.

  • Quantitative Data: Numerical data supporting statistical analyses.

• Variable Definition:

  • Variables have variations and can change; independent variable presumed to produce effects.

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Manipulation of Variables

• Manipulation: Adjusting the independent variable to observe its effects.

• Levels of IV: Different conditions manipulated in an experiment, such as varying sweetness in coffee.

• Organismic Variables: Pre-existing characteristics of participants.

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Scientific Method in Psychology

• Importance of Experimental Methods: Essential for understanding human behavior.

• Core Assumptions:

  • Determinism: Behavior is influenced by specific causes.

  • Discoverability: We can understand human behaviors through inquiry.

  • Objectivity: Gaining insights via direct observation.

• Establishing Causality:

  • Must demonstrate correlation (covariation), establish time precedence, and rule out alternative explanations.

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Evaluating Research

• Nonscientific Methods: Pseudo-sciences can misrepresent findings (e.g., astrology).

• Theory Evaluation:

  • Need continual modification based on new evidence.

  • Source of research ideas: Observations, serendipitous findings, and literature from past studies.

• Writing Guides: Importance of literature reviews and historical context in contemporary research.