Human Anatomy & Physiology

Respiratory System -

Nasal cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli

Bronchi are further divided up by:

Primary Bronchi → secondary bronchi → Tertiary Bronchi → Bronchioles

Bronchioles are further divided like:

Tertiary bronchi → Terminal bronchioles → Respiratory bronchioles → Alveoli

Nasal cavity - where the air is warmed, humidified, and filtered by mucus and hair

Pharynx - Junction for both air and food

Larynx - voice box

Trachea - Cylinder tube with rings of cartilage that provide support

The pharynx acts as the crossroads for food and air where the food is supposed to go to the esophagus and the air is supposed to go to the pharynx

Epiglottis - stops food from going into our trachea

There are two main bronchi: Right and Left

Bronchioles - smaller branches of bronchial airways

Alveoli - tiny air sacs in the lungs at the end of the bronchioles that allow for rapid gaseous exchange

• Alveoli are surrounded by clusters of alveolar sacs. In these sacs are the actual sites of where gas exchange occurs

There are two lungs: Right and left.

• Lungs are divided into sections called lobes.

  • The right has 3 lobes

  • The left has 2 lobes

The left lung has an indention at the bottom called the cardiac notch where it makes space for the heart. This contributes to the smaller size of the left lung. You can remember which lung has the smaller amount of lobes because less lobes = smaller. The left is smaller because of the heart and your heart is on the left side

Conducting zone - The areas in which air is transported between from the outside to the site of the gas exchange. It’s commonly referred as the “dead space” as no gas is actually exchanged in this area.

• The conducting zone includes the nose all the way to the bronchus. (Nose/mouth → pharynx → larynx → trachea → Bronchus)

Respiratory zone - Structures in the lungs where gas exchange occurs

• Includes Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveoli, and Alveoli ducts

The Respiratory System works with:

• The cardiovascular system

  • Red blood cells carry the oxygen throughout the body and picks up the CO2

• Skeletal system

  • protects lungs through our ribcage

• Nervous system

  • Voluntary and involuntary control of respiratory by using pH

• Muscular system

  • Work together to expand and contract the thoracic cavity, aiding in breath

    • intercostal muscles (muscles in between ribs)

    • Diaphragm (beneath our lungs)

    • Abdominal wall

Inspiration - Air drawn into lungs or inhalation

• Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract

Expiration - air pushed out of the lungs

• Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax

Diaphragm pushes down and thoracic cavity volume increases during inhalation

• Causes negative pressure relative to the atmosphere, causing air to flow in

Diaphragm rises and thoracic cavity volume decreases during inhalation

• Increases pressure compared to the atmosphere, causing air to flow out

pH scale - A measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is

Acid - Substances that increase concentration of hydrogen ions

Base - substances that decrease concentration of hydrogen ions

Increase in acidity of blood signal the brain to increase respiration

• Higher levels of CO2 will lead to higher levels of hydrogen ion concentration causing blood acidity to rise

• Lower levels of CO2 will cause lower levels of hydrogen ion concentration causing blood to become alkaline

More CO2 = more hydrogen ions

pH scale is from 1-14

• <6 is acidic (1-6)

• >8 is alkaline (8-14)

• 7 is neutral

Perfusion - delivering blood to the body’s tissues, organs, and cells

Ventilation - movement of air in and out of the lungs (breathing)

Hyperventilation - Fast breathing

• Blood pH is acidic → not getting enough O₂

• increased O2 = hyperoxia

• decreased CO2 + hypocapnia

When there’s too much O2, blood becomes basic

Hypoventilation - slow breathing

• pH is basic → too much O2

• lower O2 = hypoxia

• higher CO2 = hypercapnia

Hyperventilation and hypoventilation disrupt the normal process of breathing as well as the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body

Cardiovascular System -

Blood - red liquid that circulates in the arteries and veins of humans and other vertebrate animals

Primary function: maintain homeostasis

• pH

• Temperature

• Osmotic pressure

Transports:

• Hormones

• Nutrients

• Gases

The cardiovascular system carries oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissue of the body

Blood is always red in color

• the brighter the blood, the more oxygen it has

Blood is composed of:

• Plasma

• Platelets

• Erythrocytes

Plasma - liquid portion consisting of lipids, salt, protein, and water

Erythrocytes and cells:

• Red blood cells

  • Transports

• White blood cells

  • fight infection

Platelets - help w/ clotting

Hemoglobin - what gives blood its red hue

Arteries carry blood AWAY from the heart, typically oxygen rich

• A in Away stands for Arteries

Veins - carry blood back to the heart, typically oxygen poor

• VERB - Veins Efficiently Return Blood

Pulmonary arteries carry oxygen-poor blood

Pulmonary veins carry oxygen-rich blood

Capillaries - tiny blood vessels where gas exchange for oxygen and carbon dioxide happen

Heart

Atrium at the top, Ventricle at the bottom

• A comes before V in the alphabet

Heart valves prevent backflow

Atria have thin walls while ventricles have thick walls

Right of the heart usually carries deoxygenated blood

Left of the heart usually carries oxygenated blood

Blood flow: deoxygenated blood goes to the lungs to get reoxygenated

• Blood comes from tissues and re-enters heart through the superior or inferior vena cava

  • Inferior vena cava is blood from the lower parts of the body while Superior vena cava comes from the higher parts of the body

Superior/Inferior Vena Cava → Right Atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonic valve → pulmonary artery → Lungs

Oxygenated blood moves from the lungs to the heart and back to the tissues

Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left Atrium → Bicuspid/mitral valve → Left ventricle → aortic valve → Aorta

Coronary Arteries

• Right coronary artery

• Left coronary artery

• Circumflex artery

• Right Marginal Artery

• Left Anterior descending artery

• Posterior interventricular Artery or posterior descending artery

Coronary arteries originates from the aorta and delivers nutrients and oxygen to the heart

Coronary veins

• Great cardiac vein

• Small cardiac vein

• Coronary sinus

• Middle Cardiac vein

Coronary veins carry deoxygenated blood return to right atrium from coronary sinus

Interatrial Septum - thin, muscular membrane structure that consists of two parts: fossa ovalis and the limbus of the fossa ovalis

• Separates the right and left atrium

Atrial Septal Defect (ASD) - a congenital heart defect where there is an abnormal opening in the interatrial septum, allowing blood to flow between the two atria

Interventricular septum - Thick, muscular wall that consists of two parts: a membranous and muscular portion

• Separates the right and left ventricles

Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD) - A congenital defect characterized by one or more holes. in the interventricular septum, allowing to mix between ventricles

The Interatrial Septum and the Interventricular septum separate the oxygen-rich blood from the oxygen-poor blood between the chamber

Electrical Conduction System of the Heart

Sinoatrial node (SA)

• Main Pacemaker

• Starts electrical impulse

• Triggers atrial contraction

• 60-100 BPM

• Situated in the right atrium where it meets the Superior vena cava

Bachmann Bundle - brings signal from SA to the left atrium

Internodal Pathways

• Three routes: Anterior, middle, posterior

• Signal from SA node goes to AV node

Atrioventricular node (AV)

• Secondary Pacemaker

• In the right atrium but near the tricuspid valve and coronary sinus

• Relay signals from SA node

• Allow atria to contract → allows ventricles to fill

• 40-60 BPM

The AV has a delay on the relay of signals which allows the atria to fully contract and that blood reaches the ventricles

Bundle of His

• Only route between atria and ventricles

• Two branches:

  • Right bundle branch - signal to right ventricle

  • Left bundle branch - signal to left ventricle

Purjinke Fibers

• Last ditch pacemaker

• Connect w/ myocytes

• Initialize depolarization → leads to contraction

• 20-40 BPM

Depolarization - contraction

Repolarization - Relaxation

ECG Basics

P Wave: Atrial depolarization

• Signifies Atrial contraction

QRS Complex: Ventricular Depolarization

• Signifies ventricular contraction

• Normal range: .06-.12 seconds

T Wave: Ventricular Repolarization

• Signifies Ventricular relaxation

Atrial Repolarization happens concurrently with the QRS complex

Systolic Pressure - Contraction of the heart

• “Lub” sound

• Top # on the reading lowest pressure in arteries

• Lower than 120

Diastolic Pressure - relaxation of the heart

• “Dub” sound

• Bottom # on reading lowest pressure in arteries

• Lower than 80

Nervous System -

Body’s command center – made up of your brain, spinal cord, and nerves that sends highly complex sensory info to different parts of the body

Two Types:

• Central Nervous System - made up of the brain and spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System - Everything else outside the brain and spinal cord

Primary Function:

• Central Nervous System:

  • Process info

  • Command center

  • Motor response or regulate body mechanism

• Peripheral nervous system

  • Sensory info for the CNS

Central Nervous System

The brain will be categorized into 3 regions:

• Forebrain

• Midbrain

• Hindbrain

Hindbrain is made up of:

• Cerebellum

• Pons

• Medulla

Medulla - regulates breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

Pons - transmits signals between forebrain and cerebellum

Cerebellum - Balance & movement coordination

“Medulla manages, pons passes, and cerebellum coordinates”

Midbrain

Primary function:

• Alertness

• Sleep/wake cycle

• Motor activities

“MID Controls”

• M - movement

• I - Involvement in the sleep/wake cycle

• D - Detection of auditory and visual reflexes

Forebrain

• Contains the cerebrum, the largest and most developed part of our brain

  • Divided into two hemispheres: Left and Right

Primary function:

• Contains primary motor and sensory cortices

• Association areas allow for complex analysis of internal/external environment

• Limbic system: Memory and emotional aspect of behavior

• Highest aspects of cognitive function

• Substrate for conscious experience

Cortex - the cerebrum’s outer layer

• Composed of gray matter

Gray matter - site of integration

• The cell body and axon terminal of a neurotransmitter

White matter - signal highways

• Axon covered with myelin

Frontal Lobe - Think “forehead” for deep thought and decision making

Parietal Lobe - Think “parachute” covering top of head; in charge of sensory information

Occipital Lobe - In charge of vision.

Temporal Lobe - Think “tempo” for hearing and rhythm in speech and memories

Peripheral Nervous System

Anything outside of the brain and spinal cord

Two Categories:

• Autonomic Nervous System

• Somatic Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System - responsible for internal temperature, regulating GI function, excretory & endocrine systems, and cardiac muscle activityes

• Sympathetic - Fight or flight response

  • Increase heart rate

  • Increases respiration

  • slows digestion

• Parasympathetic - Rest and Digest

  • Decrease heart rate

  • Digestion occurs

Sympathetic friends will take you out after a break up and hype you up, sympathetic parents (“PARA”) will comfort and calm you

Somatic Nervous System - responsible for motor function of skeletal muscles (voluntary and somatic)

Two main types of tissues in the nervous system

• Neurons

• Glial

Glial cells - help maintain chemical balance that allows signals to be sent and help maintain the blood-brain barrier

• Myelin sheath production

• Generate cerebrospinal fluid

• Immune function

Afferent neurons - sensory neuron input

• Signal goes to our CNS

• “Afferent arrive to CNS”

Efferent Neurons - motor neuron output

• Signals away from CNS to motor neurons

• “Efferent Exits”

Gastrointestinal System +

The organs that take food and liquids and brakes them down into substances that the body can use for energy, growth, and tissue repair

Ingestion - Taking in food (eating)

Digestion - Biomolecule polymers break down into building blocks

Absorption - Absorbs nutrients

Elimination - Waste is removed

Ingestion

• Begins when food is brought into our mouths

Digestion

• Begins after food is brought is brought into our mouths

• Mechanical digestion - physically breaking down food into smaller particles

  • Mouth as you chew

  • Churning of the stomach

• Chemical digestion - enzymes break down nutrients into smaller molecules

  • Saliva

  • Hydrochloric acid and pepsin in stomach

Epiglottis - flap that covers the trachea during swallowing so food does not enter the lungs

Peristalsis - Involuntary constriction and relaxation, creating wave-like movements to push contents down the canal of the esophagus

Chyme - Pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach into the small intestine

Hydrochloric Acid - Strong acidic solution of the gas hydrogen chloride in water

Pepsin - Chief digestive enzyme in the stomach that breaks down proteins into polypeptides

Lower Esophageal sphincter - separates the stomach from the esophagus

• Prevents gastric acid from splashin or coming back up the esophagus

Pyloric sphincter - separates the stomach from the small intestine

• Controls the entrance of partially digested food into the small intestine

• Prevents backflow of intestinal contents into the stomach

Absorption

• Begins at the small intestine

Small intestine is made up of three sections:

• Duodenum

• Jejunum

• Ileum

Duodenum - shortest segment of the small intestine and beginning of it

• Chemical digestion of chyme

• Breaks down fats, proteins, and carbs

• Absorbs iron and other minerals

Duodenum does it all → breaks down all the macronutrients

Jejunum - middle segments of small intestine

• absorbs nutrients

• Carbs and protein are absorbed into the bloodstream

Jejunum will judge you if you’re fat → does not absorb lipids/fats

Ileum - final segment of small intestine

• Absorb nutrients

• Vitamin B12, bile salts, and products of digestion are absorbed

Order of the parts can be remembered with: “ Digestive Juices Intake”

Villi - tiny hair-like projections that line the intestines and help w/ absorption into the bloodstream

Large Intestine - Water absorption

3 Parts:

• Ascending colon - first segment of large intestine

  • Absorbs water and salts

  • Solidify waste into formed stool

• Transverse colon - longest, most mobile part of the large intestine

  • Storage site for digested food

  • More absorption of water and minerals

• Descending colon - descending segment of the large intestine

  • Carries solid waste towards rectum

  • more absorption of water and minerals

  • store feces until defecation

Elimination

• Waste is removed

• In the rectum

Rectum - final segment of large intestine

• Stores feces until they are expelled through the anus

Accessory organs of GI system:

Liver

• Carb and protein metabolism

• Creates bile to help w/ the breakdown of lipids in small intestine

Gallbladder

• Store the bile produced by the liver

Pancreas

• Produces pancreatic juices to help neutralize chyme

GI System Enzymes & Hormones

Gastrin - Stimulate gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen and HCL

• Found in G cells of the stomach

Cholecystokinin - digests fats & proteins and stimulates the gallbladder to release bile

• Found in the I cells of the duodenum and jejunum

Secretin - regulates pH by inhibiting gastric acid secretion and stimulating bicarb production

• Found in the S cells of the duodenum

Insulin - responsible for glucose metabolism and stores glucose as glycogen

• Found in beta cells of pancreas

Glucagon - raises blood glucose levels

• Found in the alpha cells of pancreas

Bile - emulsifies fats

• Produced by liver, stored in gallbladder

Muscular System -

Composed of muscle cells & tissues that brings about movement of an organ or body parts

Cardiac muscle - specialized, organized type of tissue that only exists in the heart

• Involuntary control

• Controlled by autonomic nervous system

Smooth muscle - narrow, spindle shaped cells w/ a single centrally located nucleus

• Involuntary control

• Found in digestive system, arteries, veins, bladder, and eyes

Skeletal muscle - highly organized tissue that attach to bores or skin to produce movement

• voluntary control

• Controlled by somatic nervous system

• Found in tongue, diaphragm, upper esophagus

Characteristics of Muscle Tissue:

• Extensibility - ability to stretch or extended

• Elasticity - Ability to return to its original length when relaxed

• Excitability - ability to respond to a stimuli from a motor neuron or hormone

• Contractibility - ability of muscle to shrink or contract

Each muscle is composed of muscle fiber, there are multiple myofibrils

Myofibrils are composed of sarcomeres. Sarcomeres are composed of actin and myosin

Actin (thin filaments) - protein that forms the contractile filaments of muscle cells

Myosin (Thick filaments) - fibrous globulin of muscles that can split ATP and react to actin in muscle contraction

Reproductive System -

Collection of organs and glands that work together to produce offspring. Includes a network of hormone production that allows for conception and pregnancy

Accessory organs:

• Glands

• Ducts

• External genitalia

Gonads:

• Male reproductive systems: Testes

• Female reproductive system: Ovaries

Includes sex hormones and sperm and egg gametes

Gametes are haploid cells that are produced through meiosis

Meiosis:

Primary spermatocytes (males) - Primary oocytes (females)

46 unduplicated chromosomes (2n) → DNA replication → 46 duplicated chromosome (2n) → 46 chromosomes are split up into two groups of 23 → Meiosis II → 23 unduplicated chromosome (n) for each gamete

Sperm + Egg → fertilization → zygote

Male reproductive System

Epididymis - storage of sperm

Testes produce testosterone and produce sperm

• Separated by lobules which house seminiferous tubules → sperm production through spermatogenesis

Seminal glands - produces fluids that will turn into semen

• Produces the semen

Prostate - produces fluid for semen and surrounds the urethra

• Activates the semen

Bulbourethral gland - discharges a component of seminal fluid into urethra that lubricates the glans penis

• Also known as the Cowper’s gland

Sperm and semen are two different things. Semen does not contain sperm cells but instead mix w/ it in the ejaculating duct

Female Reproductive System

Ovary:

• Oogenesis - The process of female gamete formation

Ovary produces sex hormone estrogen and progesterone

Primordial follicle → vesicular follicle

Ovaries - oval-shaped glands where eggs form and hormones estrogen and progesterone are made

Fallopian tubes - Bilateral conduits between ovaries and the uterus

Uterus - hormone-responsive sex organ that is responsible for gestation, menstruation, and labor

Cervix - lower, narrow end of uterus that connects the uterus and vagina

Vagina - muscular, copulatory canal that goes from the uterus to the outside of the body

Mons pubis - area of fatty tissue that covers the pubic bone

Labia Majora (Outer/larger lips) - fleshy folds of tissue that extend down from the mons pubis to merge with the skin of the perineum

Labia Minora (Inner/smaller lips) - Two inner folds of skin that surround the opening of the vaginal vestibule

Vestibule - space between the labia minora that houses the urethral orifice and vaginal orifice

Urethral opening - opening in which urine is discharged from the body

Vaginal orifice - slit below and behind the the opening of the urethra for menstrual menstrual flow and childbirth

Anus - opening of the rectum to the outside of the body which solid waste matter leaves

Endocrine/Reproductive Hormones

• Hypothalamus

• Pineal glands

• Pituitary glands (posterior and anterior)

Hypothalamus:

• Acts as the control system/command center

• makes their own hormones such as oxytocin

Posterior pituitary gland:

• Stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus such as oxytocin

Anterior pituitary gland:

• Makes their own hormones such as:

  • Prolactin

  • follicle stimulating

  • Luteinizing hormone

• Regulated by hypothalamus

Oxytocin - causes increased contractions of the uterus during labor

• Stimulates ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts

Prolactin - stimulates milk production in mammary glands

Follicle - stimulating - formation of ova or sperm

Luteinizing hormone - stimulates ovulation in females and androgen in men

Produced by gonads:

• Estrogen - steroid hormone develops female sex characteristics

• Progesterone - creates healthy uterine lining for menstrual cycle and pregnancy

• Androgen - develops male sexual characteristics and reproduction

Integumentary System -

Largest organ in the body that forms a physical barrier between our external and internal environments

3 layers of skin:

• Epidermis

• Dermis

• Hypodermis subcutaneous tissue

Primary functions:

• Homeostasis

• Physical barrier

• Protecting from pathogens

• Vitamin D production

• Sensory functions

Keratinocytes - produces keratin, a protein that enhances water resistance and toughness in our cells

• Found throughout the epidermis

Order of the Epidermis:

“Come Let’s Get Sun Burnt”

Come: Stratum Corneum - Outermost layer and is made up of lipids and keratinocytes.

Let’s: Stratum Lucidum - Thin, clear layer of dead skin cells found in thick skin on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet

• Only found in those areas

Get: Stratum Granulosum - Thin layer of cells that contain granules of lipids to form a waterproof layer

Sun: Stratum Spinosum - Keratinocytes held together by desmosomes to make skin flexible and strong

Burnt: Stratum Basale - Single columnar or cuboidal row of cells that divide to replace the epidermis as it wears away

Langerhans Cells - tissue macrophages of the skin

Melanocytes - cells in the skin produce and contain the pigment called melanin

Dermis

Contains blood vessels, sweat glands, nerves, hair follicles, and connective tissue

Connective tissue - non-epidermal tissue that serves to bind structures together

Dermis is made up of two types of protein: Collagen and Elastin

Elastin and Collagen are made by specialized cells called fibroblasts

The Dermis is made up of two layers:

• Papillary layers - looser connective tissue

• Reticular layers - more dense and packed connective tissue

Scars - fibrous connective tissue develops and leaves a mark on the skin

• Scars are created if the wound happens in the dermis layers

• Scars cause skin to lose elasticity, causing hindrance to movement for larger scarring/wounds

Keloids - irregular fibrous tissue formed at the site of a scar due to increase of collagen production

Hypodermis

Connects the skin to bone and muscle tissue

Primarily composed of adipose tissue which store body fat

• Adipose tissue aid the body with insulation

Sweat glands

• Aids in thermoregulation

• As sweat evaporates, the surface of the skin cools

Sebaceous glands - produce oil

• waterproofs and lubricates hair and skin

Hair follicle

• Hair bulb undergoes mitosis to drive hair root growth

Nails

• Nail root undergoes mitosis to drive nail growth

Skin Cancer

Most common cancer in the US

Basal cell carcinoma - abnormal, uncontrolled growth of basal cells

Melanoma - A tumor of melanin forming cells

Squamous cell carcinoma - Cancer growth that make up the middle and outer layers of the skin

Burns

First degree burns - involves the outer layer of the skin (epidermis)

• Minor inflammation and redness

Second degree burns - Extends through the epidermis into the upper layers of the dermis

• Swelling, blistering, and significant pain

Third degree burns - penetrates the full depth of the dermis and epidermis

• White/charred skin and numbness due to nerve damage

Endocrine System -

Messenger system comprising of feedback loops of hormones that are released by internal glands and target distant organs. The hypothalamus is the neural control center of all endocrine systems

Brain:

• Hypothalamus

• Pineal gland

• Pituitary gland

Neck/Chest:

• Thyroid

• Parathyroid

• Thymus

Abdomen/Pelvis

• Adrenal glands

• Pancreas

• Gonads - ovaries & testes

Endocrine - releases hormones into their surroundings. No special ducts

Exocrine - A gland that makes substances and releases them through a duct or opening to the body

• Exo → Excrete

Hormones

A regulatory substance in an organism and transported in tissue fluid to stimulate specific cells or tissue into action

Function:

• Bind specific target cells and will cause some kind of action to occur

Hormones can be derived from various biomolecules such as:

• Amino acids (polypeptides)

• Lipids (steroids)

Posterior pituitary hormones

• Oxytocin

• Antidiuretic hormone - constricts blood vessels and control salt in water in body

Anterior pituitary hormones:

• Growth hormones - promotes growth in hormones

• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) - Activates release of thyroid hormones

• Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) - triggers release of cortisol from adrenal glands

Pineal gland hormones:

• Melatonin - involved in sleep/wake cycle

Thyroid hormones:

• Thyroxine (T4) - increases rate of chemical reactions in cells and helps control growth and development

• Triiodothyronine (T3) - Stimulates nervous system in wakefulness, alertness, and responsiveness to external stimuli

  • T stands for thyroid. Both T4 and T3 turn up metabolic rate

• Calcitonin - lowers blood calcium

  • “Calci-tone-it-down” → lowers calcium in blood

Parathyroid hormones:

• Parathyroid hormone - raises blood calcium

Thymus hormone:

• Thymosin - help make T cells

Adrenal glands are comprised of two distinct parts:

• Adrenal medulla

• Adrenal cortex

Adrenal medulla hormones:

• Epinephrine - works on heart

• Norepinephrine - works on blood vessels

Adrenal cortex hormones:

• glucocorticoids - steroid hormones that play a role in glucose, proteins, and fat metabolism

  • EX: cortisol

• Mineralocorticoids - steroid hormone that plays a role in salt and water balance

  • EX: aldosterone

Pancreas hormones:

• Insulin - controls blood sugar levels and metabolism - turn food into energy

  • Puts glucose into cells to lower blood sugar

• Glucagon - helps regulate blood sugar levels when too low

  • Raises blood sugar levels by raising glucose

Gonads hormones:

• Estrogen

• Progesterone

• Androgen

Urinary System

The organs that make up urine and remove it from the body

Survival function:

• Maintain osmotic balance

• Remove metabolic waste

Nephrons - the fundamental units of the kidney

Fluid found in Bowman’s capsule:

• Water

• Glucose

• Amino Acids

• Salts

• Hydrogen ions

• Bicarbonate ions

• Medication & vitamins

• Urea

Fluid pushed into the Bowman’s capsule is called filtrate

Filtrate is either re-absorbed or secreted

Reabsorption - Tubular reabsorption is the process by which most solvent and solutes are recovered back into the belly

Secretion - Tubular secretion is the transfer of materials from the capillaries into the renal tubular lumen

Two ways of transport:

• Passive transport

• Active transport

Passive transport:

• Diffusion - movement of small particles

• Facilitated diffusion - movement of large particles

• Osmosis - movement of water

Active transport - Molecules move from a lower concentration gradient where solutes/fluid move from higher concentration

Journey through the kidney:

1) Bowman’s capsule

2) Proximal convoluted tubule

• Reabsorbed:

  • Salts

  • Water

  • Bicarbs

  • Glucose

  • amino acids

  • potassium

• Secrets:

  • Hydrogen

  • Water

3) Descending loop of Henle

• Reabsorbs: water

4)Ascending loop of Henle

• Reabsorbs: salt

5) Distal Convoluted Tubule

• Reabsorbs:

  • salts

  • water

  • bicarbs

• secrets:

  • Hydrogen

  • Ammonium

  • Potassium

6) Collecting duct: hormone controlled

• Reabsorbs:

  • Salts

  • Urea

  • Water

Immune System -

A complex of cells, tissue, organs, and proteins that protect the body from infection, disease, and other threats

Pathogens - A bacterium, virus, protists, worms, or other microorganism that can cause disease

White blood cells:

• Macrophages - engulfs pathogens

• Neutrophils

• Eosinophils

• Basophils

• B cells

• T cells

• & more

External protection:

• First line of defense:

  • Skin

  • Mucous membranes

• Non-specific defense

Second line of defense:

• Non-specific defense

• Macrophages (phagocytic white blood cells)

Second & first line of defense are innate immunity

Mast cells - assist with allergic & inflammatory responses

• Contains histamine which makes blood vessels dilate and more permeable to allow white blood cells to reach the affected area

Complement System

• Engages in both specific & non-specific defense

• Works to enhance or complement the actions of the immune system

• Draws more white blood cells to site of injury/infection

3rd line of defense:

• Specific defense

• Adaptive immunity

• B & T cells (lymphocytes)

Adaptive Immunity - A type of immunity that develops when a person’s immune response to a foreign substance or microorganisms, such as after an infection or vaccination

Two types:

• Cell mediated

• Humoral

Cell mediated:

• Cytotoxic T cells - destroys infected cells by causing apoptosis

• Two processes:

  • An infected cell presents antigen from pathogen that has infected it. Cytotoxic T cell binds and causes apoptosis

  • Macrophages release chemical signals. Helper T cells bind and then release signals. Stimulates the cytotoxic T cells

• Helper T cells - helps activate other white blood cells

  • Also involved in humoral

Antibodies - A blood protein produced in response to and counteract a specific antigen

IgG - Most abundant type of antibodies. Enhances phagocytosis, neutralizes, toxins, trigger complement system

IgA - Mucosal Immunity

IgM - 1st antibody produced in response to infection. Forming complexes w/ antigens and activating complement

IgE - Allergic reactions and parasitic infections

IgD - less understood antibody role in initiating early immune response

• Produced by B cells

Skeletal System -

The body’s support system. It’s part include bones, muscles, cartilage, and connective tissue like ligaments and tendons

Primary functions:

• Supporting body

• Protecting internal organs

• Reservoir for minerals

• Produces RBC & WBC

• Enables movement

2 types:

• Axial skeleton

• Appendicular skeleton

Axial skeleton:

• Skull

• Ossicles

• Hyoid

• Vertebral column

• Rib cage

Appendicular skeleton:

• Shoulder girdle

• legs & feet

• Arms & hands

• Pelvic girdle

Long bones - longer than they are wide

• Humerus

• Ulna

• Radius

• Femur

• Tibia

• Fibula

• Phalanges

• Metacarpals

• Metatarsals

Short bones - Length & width are close to equal, like a cube

• Carpals

• Tarsals

Sesamoid bones - round bones

• Patella

Flat bones - curved and thin

• Cranial bone

• Scapula

Irregular bones - no specific shape description

• Vertebrae

Compact bone - hard, dense outer layer of bones

• Protects & strengthens bones

Spongy bone - porous, honeycomb like structure

• Also known as cancellous or trabecular bone

Red bone marrow - contains hematopoietic stem cells that produce:

• RBCs

• WBCs

• Platelets

Yellow bone marrow - contain mesenchymal stem cells that produce:

• Fat

• Cartilage

• Bone

Osteoblasts - cells required for bone synthesis & mineralization

Osteocytes - mature osteoblasts

Osteoclasts - cells that breaks down bone tissue

Bone remodeling - old bone is systematically removed and new bone is formed in its place

Resting state - inactive state where no remodeling is happening

Resorption - Osteoclasts create acidic environment to dissolve mineral component of bone

• calcium is released during resorption process

Reversal - mononuclear cells appear on surface and is a transition between resorption and formation

Formation - osteoblasts begin to create new osteoid at resorption site to replenish bone

Mineralization - osteoid mineralizes; to restore mechanical strength & support

Chondroblasts - cells that form cartilage

Chondrocytes - mature chondroblasts

Cartilage:

• Supports bones

• Joint connection

• Template for bone placement

Closed fracture - simple fracture, doesn’t penetrate skin

Open fracture - open/compound fracture, does penetrate skin

Comminuted - Bone shatters into 3 or more pieces

Impacted - Buckle fracture end of bones driven together

Greenstick - Bone bends and cracks; doesn’t break all the way