Developmental Psychology

• Scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across their lifespan

• Application: Developmental psychologists study how children's cognitive abilities change as they progress through Piaget's stages of development.

Cross-Sectional Study

• Research method that compares different age groups at a single point in time

• Application: Researchers might use a cross-sectional study to examine how cognitive abilities differ across various age groups.

Longitudinal Study

• Research method that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period

• Application: A longitudinal study might track the cognitive development of a group of children from early childhood through adolescence.

Teratogens

• Environmental agents that can cause birth defects when a fetus is exposed during pregnancy

• Application: Alcohol is a teratogen that can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome when consumed by pregnant women.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

• Group of birth defects caused by maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy

• Application: Children with FAS may exhibit facial abnormalities, growth deficiencies, and cognitive impairments.

Habituation

• Decreased response to a repeated stimulus

• Application: Infants demonstrate habituation when they stop responding to a repeated sound or visual stimulus.

Maturation

• Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior

• Application: A child's ability to walk is largely dependent on the maturation of their motor skills.

Critical Period

• Specific time during development when certain experiences or events have a particularly strong impact

• Application: There is a critical period for language acquisition, where children more easily learn languages than adults.

Adolescence

• Transitional stage of physical and psychological development between childhood and adulthood

• Application: During adolescence, individuals experience significant changes in their bodies, emotions, and social relationships.

Puberty

• Period of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction

• Application: During puberty, boys experience voice deepening and girls begin menstruation.

Menopause

• Period of time when women stop having menstrual cycles

• Application: Women going through menopause may experience hot flashes and mood changes as their bodies adjust to hormonal shifts.

Sex

• Biological characteristics that define males and females

• Application: Sex is determined by chromosomes, with XX typically resulting in female and XY in male.

Gender

• Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and attributes that a society considers appropriate for men and women

• Application: Gender roles may influence career choices, with some professions being traditionally associated with a particular gender.

Intersex

• Individuals born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't fit typical definitions of female or male

• Application: An intersex person might have chromosomes that don't match their external genitalia.

Aggression

• Behavior intended to cause harm to another individual

• Application: A child pushing another child on the playground is an example of physical aggression.

Relational Aggression

• Form of aggression aimed at damaging social relationships or social status

• Application: Spreading rumors or excluding someone from a social group are examples of relational aggression.

Carol Gilligan

• American psychologist known for her work on moral development and ethical relationships

• Application: Gilligan's research challenged Kohlberg's theory of moral development by highlighting gender differences in moral reasoning.

X Chromosome

• Sex chromosome present in both males and females

• Application: Females typically have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.

Y Chromosome

• Sex chromosome present only in males

• Application: The presence of a Y chromosome typically leads to male development in humans.

Testosterone

• Primary male sex hormone

• Application: During puberty, increased testosterone levels in boys lead to deepening of the voice and growth of facial hair.

Estrogens

• Group of hormones responsible for female sexual development and reproduction

• Application: Estrogen levels in women fluctuate during the menstrual cycle, influencing mood and physical changes.

Primary Sex Characteristics

• Physical features directly related to reproduction

• Application: Ovaries in females and testes in males are examples of primary sex characteristics.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

• Physical features that distinguish the sexes but are not directly involved in reproduction

• Application: Breast development in females and facial hair growth in males are secondary sex characteristics.

Spermarche

• First ejaculation in males

• Application: Spermarche typically occurs during puberty and marks the beginning of male fertility.

Menarche

• First menstrual period in females

• Application: The age of menarche can be influenced by factors such as nutrition and physical activity.

Role

• Set of behaviors, rights, and obligations associated with a social position

• Application: The role of a teacher includes instructing students, grading assignments, and maintaining classroom discipline.

Gender Role

• Set of behaviors, attitudes, and activities expected or considered appropriate for a specific gender

• Application: Traditional gender roles might expect women to be nurturing and men to be assertive.

Sexual Aggression

• Any sexual activity carried out against a person's will

• Application: Sexual harassment in the workplace is a form of sexual aggression.

Gender Identity

• Person's internal sense of being male, female, or another gender

• Application: A transgender person's gender identity does not match the sex they were assigned at birth.

Social Learning Theory

• Theory proposing that people learn by observing others' behavior and its consequences

• Application: Children may learn gender-typical behaviors by observing and imitating their parents.

Gender Typing

• Process of socialization by which children learn behaviors considered appropriate for their gender

• Application: Parents might encourage boys to play with trucks and girls to play with dolls, contributing to gender typing.

Androgyny

• Combination of masculine and feminine characteristics in one person

• Application: An androgynous individual might display both assertiveness (traditionally masculine) and emotional sensitivity (traditionally feminine).

Sexuality

• Capacity for sexual feelings and behaviors

• Application: Sexuality encompasses various aspects, including sexual orientation, sexual behavior, and sexual identity.

Asexual

• Person who experiences little or no sexual attraction to others

• Application: An asexual individual might form romantic relationships but have little interest in sexual activity.

Alfred Kinsey

• American biologist and sexologist who conducted groundbreaking research on human sexuality

• Application: Kinsey's research led to the development of the Kinsey scale, which measures sexual orientation on a continuum.

Social Script

• Culturally shared expectations about how to behave in specific social situations

• Application: The social script for a first date might include expectations about who pays for the meal and whether a goodnight kiss is appropriate.

Alice Eagly

• American social psychologist known for her work on gender roles and stereotypes

• Application: Eagly's social role theory suggests that gender stereotypes arise from the distribution of men and women into different social roles.

Sexual Orientation

• Pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attraction to men, women, both genders, or neither gender

• Application: Homosexuality, heterosexuality, and bisexuality are examples of sexual orientations.

Jean Piaget

• Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development

• Application: Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes how children's thinking evolves through different stages.

Cognition

• Mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension

• Application: Problem-solving, decision-making, and memory are all aspects of cognition.

Schema

• Mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information

• Application: A child's schema for "dog" might include four legs, fur, and barking.

Assimilation

• Process of incorporating new information into existing schemas

• Application: A child who learns that a whale is a mammal, not a fish, assimilates this information into their existing schema of mammals.

Accommodation

• Process of changing existing schemas to fit new information

• Application: When a child first encounters a platypus, they might need to accommodate their schema of mammals to include egg-laying animals.

Sensorimotor Stage

• First stage of Piaget's theory, from birth to about 2 years, where infants understand the world through sensory experiences and motor actions

• Application: An infant learning that shaking a rattle produces sound is in the sensorimotor stage.

Object Permanence

• Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can't be seen

• Application: A baby who looks for a toy hidden under a blanket demonstrates object permanence.

Preoperational Stage

• Second stage of Piaget's theory, from about 2 to 7 years, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism

• Application: A child using a banana as a pretend telephone is displaying symbolic thinking in the preoperational stage.

Conservation

• Understanding that certain properties of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance

• Application: A child who understands that the amount of water remains the same when poured from a tall, thin glass into a short, wide glass has mastered conservation.

Egocentrism

• Inability to see situations from another person's point of view

• Application: A young child might hide by covering their eyes, believing that if they can't see others, others can't see them.

Concrete Operational Stage

• Third stage of Piaget's theory, from about 7 to 11 years, characterized by logical thinking about concrete situations

• Application: Children in this stage can understand that 5+3=8 and 8-3=5, demonstrating reversibility of thought.

Formal Operational Stage

• Final stage of Piaget's theory, from about 11 years onward, characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinking

• Application: Adolescents in this stage can engage in complex moral reasoning and consider hypothetical scenarios.

Lev Vygotsky

• Russian psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development

• Application: Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development influences educational practices that involve scaffolding.

Scaffold

• Temporary support provided to help a learner accomplish a task

• Application: A teacher might scaffold a student's writing by providing an outline or guiding questions.

Theory of Mind

• Ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others

• Application: A child with theory of mind understands that others can have beliefs different from their own.

Language

• Structured system of communication used by humans

• Application: Language allows us to express complex ideas, emotions, and experiences to others.

Noam Chomsky

• American linguist known for his theory of universal grammar

• Application: Chomsky's work has influenced our understanding of how children acquire language so rapidly and effortlessly.

Phoneme

• Smallest unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a language

• Application: The words "bat" and "pat" differ by only one phoneme, the initial consonant sound.

Morpheme

• Smallest meaningful unit in a language

• Application: The word "unhappy" contains two morphemes: "un-" (meaning "not") and "happy."

Grammar

• Set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in a language

• Application: Understanding grammar allows us to form coherent sentences and communicate effectively.

Universal Grammar (UG)

• Theory proposing that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain

• Application: UG might explain why children can learn any language they're exposed to during early childhood.

Babbling Stage

• Period in language development when infants produce various speech-like sounds

• Application: A 6-month-old baby making "ba-ba-ba" sounds is in the babbling stage.

One-Word Stage

• Period in language development when children use single words to express entire thoughts

• Application: A toddler saying "milk" to mean "I want milk" is in the one-word stage.

Two-Word Stage

• Period in language development when children begin to combine two words to express more complex ideas

• Application: A child saying "mommy go" to mean "Mommy is leaving" is in the two-word stage.

Telegraphic Speech

• Speech consisting of only the most essential words

• Application: A child saying "want cookie" instead of "I want a cookie" is using telegraphic speech.

Aphasia

• Language disorder caused by damage to specific brain areas

• Application: A person with Broca's aphasia might understand speech but struggle to produce fluent speech.

Paul Broca

• French physician who discovered the speech production center of the brain

• Application: Broca's discovery of the area in the frontal lobe responsible for speech production advanced our understanding of language processing in the brain.

Broca's Area

• Region in the frontal lobe of the brain involved in speech production

• Application: Damage to Broca's area can result in difficulty producing speech while still understanding language.

Carl Wernicke

• German neurologist who discovered the brain region involved in language comprehension

• Application: Wernicke's work complemented Broca's, providing a more complete picture of language processing in the brain.

Wernicke's Area

• Region in the temporal lobe of the brain involved in language comprehension

• Application: Damage to Wernicke's area can result in fluent speech that lacks meaning.

Linguistic Determinism

• Strong form of linguistic relativity proposing that language determines thought

• Application: The hypothesis that speakers of languages with many words for snow perceive snow differently due to their language.

Benjamin Lee Whorf

• American linguist known for his work on linguistic relativity

• Application: Whorf's studies of Hopi language led him to propose that language shapes perception and thought.

Linguistic Relativism

• Weaker form of linguistic relativity proposing that language influences thought

• Application: The idea that the grammatical gender of nouns in some languages might influence how speakers perceive those objects.

Ecological Systems Theory

• Theory proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that emphasizes the influence of environmental systems on development

• Application: A child's development is influenced by their immediate family (microsystem) as well as broader societal factors (macrosystem).

Stranger Anxiety

• Fear or wariness of unfamiliar people that typically develops in infants around 8 months of age

• Application: An 8-month-old baby crying when approached by an unfamiliar adult is displaying stranger anxiety.

Attachment

• Emotional bond between an infant and caregiver

• Application: Secure attachment in infancy is associated with better social and emotional outcomes later in life.

Harry Harlow

• American psychologist known for his experiments on maternal separation and social isolation in rhesus monkeys

• Application: Harlow's experiments demonstrated the importance of comfort and contact in infant development, beyond mere feeding.

Margaret Harlow

• American psychologist who collaborated with Harry Harlow on primate research

• Application: The Harlows' work challenged the prevailing behaviorist view that infant attachment was simply a learned response to feeding.

Imprinting

• Rapid learning that occurs during a critical period, typically soon after birth

• Application: Goslings following the first moving object they see after hatching, even if it's not their mother, is an example of imprinting.

Konrad Lorenz

• Austrian zoologist known for his work on imprinting in animals

• Application: Lorenz's experiments with geese demonstrated how imprinting occurs and its importance in animal behavior.

Mary Ainsworth

• American-Canadian developmental psychologist known for her work on attachment theory

• Application: Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure is used to assess attachment styles in young children.

Strange Situation

• Procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess attachment styles in young children

• Application: In the Strange Situation, researchers observe how a child reacts to being separated from and reunited with their caregiver.

Secure Attachment

• Attachment style characterized by trust in the caregiver's availability and responsiveness

• Application: A securely attached child might be distressed when separated from their caregiver but easily comforted upon reunion.

Insecure Attachment

• Attachment styles characterized by anxiety, avoidance, or disorganization in the child-caregiver relationship

• Application: An insecurely attached child might show little distress when separated from their caregiver or be difficult to comfort upon reunion.

Temperament

• Individual differences in emotional reactivity and self-regulation that appear early in life

• Application: A child with an "easy" temperament might adapt quickly to new situations, while a child with a "difficult" temperament might be more easily upset by changes.

Erik Erikson

• German-American psychologist known for his theory of psychosocial development

• Application: Erikson's stages of psychosocial development describe conflicts that individuals must resolve throughout their lifespan.

Basic Trust

• First stage in Erikson's theory, where infants develop a sense of whether the world is a safe and reliable place

• Application: Consistent and responsive caregiving helps infants develop basic trust.

Self-Concept

• Individual's beliefs about themselves, including their attributes and who and what the self is

• Application: A child's self-concept might include beliefs about their abilities, their likes and dislikes, and their role in their family.

Diana Baumrind

• American developmental psychologist known for her research on parenting styles

• Application: Baumrind identified authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles, which have different effects on child development.

Social Identity

• Part of an individual's self-concept derived from their membership in social groups

• Application: A person might identify strongly with their cultural background, which contributes to their social identity.

Intimacy

• Close, familiar, and usually affectionate or loving personal relationships

• Application: Developing intimacy in romantic relationships involves sharing personal thoughts and feelings with a partner.

Emerging Adulthood

• Developmental stage between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, typically from ages 18 to 25

• Application: Emerging adults often explore various life paths, including education, career options, and relationships.

Social Clock

• Cultural timetable for when major life events should occur, such as marriage and parenthood

• Application: Individuals may feel pressure to conform to the social clock, leading to stress if they achieve milestones later than peers.

Learning

• Process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences

• Application: Learning occurs through various methods, including observation, practice, and instruction.

Associative Learning

• Learning that occurs when an association is made between two events or stimuli

• Application: Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a response.

Stimulus

• Any event or situation that evokes a response

• Application: The sound of a bell can serve as a stimulus in a classical conditioning experiment.

Respondent Behavior

• Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

• Application: Salivating when food is placed in front of you is an example of respondent behavior.

Operant Behavior

• Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli

• Application: A child cleaning their room to receive praise from parents is exhibiting operant behavior.

Cognitive Learning

• Learning that involves mental processes and may occur without direct experience

• Application: Observational learning is a form of cognitive learning where individuals learn by watching others.

Ivan Pavlov

• Russian physiologist known for his work in classical conditioning

• Application: Pavlov's experiments with dogs demonstrated how neutral stimuli can be conditioned to elicit responses.

Classical Conditioning

• Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit similar responses

• Application: A dog learns to salivate at the sound of a bell after it has been repeatedly paired with food.

John B. Watson

• American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism

• Application: Watson's famous "Little Albert" experiment demonstrated classical conditioning in humans.

Behaviorism

• Psychological perspective that emphasizes observable behaviors over internal mental processes

• Application: Behaviorism focuses on how environmental factors shape behavior through conditioning.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

• Stimulus that initially produces no specific response until it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus

• Application: In Pavlov's experiment, the bell was a neutral stimulus before being paired with food.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

• Unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

• Application: Salivating at the sight of food is an unconditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

• Stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning

• Application: Food is an unconditioned stimulus that elicits salivation in dogs.

Conditioned Response (CR)

• Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has become conditioned

• Application: Salivating at the sound of the bell after conditioning is the conditioned response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• Previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response

• Application: The bell becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with food in Pavlov's experiments.

Acquisition

• Initial stage of learning when a response is established and gradually strengthened

• Application: In classical conditioning, acquisition occurs when the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response.

Higher-Order Conditioning

• Procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus to create a second conditioned stimulus

• Application: If a light is paired with the bell (which already elicits salivation), the light can also become a conditioned stimulus for salivation.

Extinction

• Diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus

• Application: If Pavlov stops presenting food after ringing the bell, the dog will eventually stop salivating at the bell alone—a process known as extinction.

Spontaneous Recovery

• Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause

• Application: After some time without exposure to the bell and food, if Pavlov rings the bell again, the dog may salivate once more—a phenomenon called spontaneous recovery.

Generalization

• Tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

• Application: A dog trained to respond to one type of bell may also respond to other bells of similar tone due to generalization.

Discrimination

• Ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus

• Application: A dog learns to respond only to its owner's specific whistle while ignoring other similar sounds—a process called discrimination.

Preparedness

• Biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value

• Application: Humans are more likely to develop phobias for snakes or spiders than for non-threatening objects due to preparedness.

John Garcia

• American psychologist known for his research on taste aversion learning

• Application: Garcia's studies demonstrated that animals can develop strong aversions to tastes associated with illness even if there is a long delay between consumption and sickness.

Operant Conditioning

• Learning process through which behaviors are modified by their consequences (reinforcements or punishments)

• Application: A child learns to say "please" by receiving praise from parents when they do so—an example of operant conditioning.

B. F. Skinner

• American psychologist known for his work on operant conditioning and reinforcement theory

• Application: Skinner developed techniques for shaping behavior using reinforcement schedules in his experiments with pigeons and rats.

Edward L. Thorndike

• American psychologist known for his work on animal behavior and learning theory

• Application: Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Law of Effect

• Principle stating that responses followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened while those followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened

• Application: A student who receives praise for completing homework will be more likely to complete it again due to the law of effect.

Operant Chamber

• Experimental apparatus used by Skinner to study operant conditioning

• Application: The Skinner box allows researchers to observe how animals learn through reinforcement and punishment in controlled conditions.

Reinforcement

• Any consequence that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior

• Application: Giving a child candy for cleaning their room serves as positive reinforcement for that behavior.

Shaping

• Gradually guiding actions toward desired behavior through reinforcement

• Application: A trainer might use shaping techniques by rewarding successive approximations toward teaching a dog how to roll over.

Discriminative Stimulus

• Stimulus that signals whether reinforcement will be available for a particular behavior

• Application: A green traffic light acts as a discriminative stimulus indicating it is safe for drivers to proceed through an intersection.

Positive Reinforcement

• Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli after desired responses

• Application: Giving praise or rewards when children complete their chores serves as positive reinforcement.

Negative Reinforcement

• Increasing behaviors by removing negative stimuli after desired responses

• Application: Taking pain medication removes discomfort, reinforcing the behavior of taking medication.

Primary Reinforcer

• Innately reinforcing stimulus; satisfies biological needs

• Application: Food and water are primary reinforcers because they fulfill basic survival needs.

Conditioned Reinforcer

(Secondary Reinforcer)

• Stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcers

• Application: Money serves as a conditioned reinforcer because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers like food and shelter.

Reinforcement Schedule

• Rules determining how often reinforcements will be delivered

• Application: Different reinforcement schedules can affect how quickly behaviors are learned or extinguished.

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

• Reinforcing desired behavior every time it occurs

• Application: Giving a dog a treat every time it sits on command exemplifies continuous reinforcement.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule

• Reinforcing desired behavior only part of the time

• Application: Slot machines provide partial reinforcement since players win occasionally but not every time they play.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

• Reinforcement delivered after a set number of responses

• Application: A factory worker receiving pay for every ten items produced operates under a fixed-ratio schedule.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

• Reinforcement delivered after an unpredictable number of responses

• Application: Gamblers experience variable-ratio schedules since they win sporadically based on chance rather than fixed intervals.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

• Reinforcement delivered after a specific amount of time has passed since last reinforcement

• Application: Students studying harder right before exams are responding to fixed-interval schedules based on test dates.

Variable-Interval Schedule

• Reinforcement delivered after varying amounts of time have passed since last reinforcement

• Application: Checking email sporadically throughout the day exemplifies variable-interval reinforcement since messages arrive unpredictably.

Punishment

• Consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated

• Application: Scolding a pet for chewing shoes serves as punishment aimed at reducing unwanted chewing behavior.

Instinctive Drift

• Tendency for learned behaviors to revert back toward innate behaviors over time

• Application: Raccoons trained to put coins into machines may revert back to washing them due to instinctive drift.

Robert Rescorla

• Psychologist known for his work on cognitive aspects of classical conditioning

• Application: Rescorla's research emphasized that predictability plays an important role in classical conditioning outcomes.

Edward C. Tolman

• Psychologist known for his research on cognitive maps and latent learning

• Application: Tolman's experiments showed that rats could learn mazes without immediate rewards but would demonstrate this knowledge later when motivated by food.

Cognitive Map

• Mental representation of physical space

• Application: A person navigating their neighborhood uses cognitive maps formed from previous experiences walking around town.

Latent Learning

• Learning that occurs but is not immediately reflected in behavior

• Application: Children may learn rules during games but only demonstrate knowledge when prompted later on during another game.

Insight Learning

• Sudden realization or understanding of how to solve a problem

• Application: A person suddenly figuring out how to fix their broken bicycle without trial-and-error illustrates insight learning.

Observational Learning

• Learning by observing others' behaviors and their consequences

• Application: Children often learn social behaviors by watching parents interact with others—an example of observational learning.

Modeling

• Process of observing and imitating specific behaviors exhibited by others

• Application: A child learns how to tie their shoes by watching an older sibling model this skill repeatedly.

Albert Bandura

• Psychologist known for his work on social learning theory and observational learning

• Application: Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated how children imitate aggressive behaviors observed in adults.

Mirror Neurons

• Neurons activated both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform that action

• Application: Mirror neurons may play roles in empathy by allowing individuals to understand others' emotions through observation.

Prosocial Behavior

• Positive, helpful actions intended to benefit others

• Application: Volunteering at local shelters demonstrates prosocial behavior aimed at helping those in need.

Antisocial Behavior

• Actions intended harm or disregard societal norms

• Application: Bullying others at school exemplifies antisocial behavior detrimental both personally and socially.