Tech: Compass (China), astrolabe (Islam), lateen sails (Arab), caravels (Portugal).
Political: Kings got stronger, wanted gold and glory.
Economic: Mercantilism = export more, import less. Colonies = money machines.
Joint-stock companies (like the Dutch VOC) = group-funded conquests with low investor risk.

🚢 Major Empire Builders:

Portugal: Trading post empire in Africa/Indian Ocean.
Spain: Took over the Americas & Philippines.
France: Canada, fur trade, small settlements.
England: Jamestown (1607), coastal India trade posts → full empire later.
Dutch: VOC dominates spice trade; more about ports than land.

🔁 Columbian Exchange = Global Reboot

Disease: Smallpox, measles, malaria → Indigenous wipeout (up to 90%).
Plants: Maize, potatoes → Europe/Asia/Africa population explosion.
Animals: Horses → game-changer for Native hunting/agriculture.

🪓 Labor & Slavery Types

Encomienda: Spanish system using Indigenous forced labor.
Mit’a (Incan system): Spanish adapted it to draft labor for mining.
Chattel slavery: People treated as property — permanent and hereditary (especially in Americas).
Indentured servitude: Temporary labor in exchange for passage.
Hacienda system: Massive land estates → tied Indigenous laborers to land.
African slavery increases as Indigenous labor supply collapsed.

💣 Effects on African States

Asante Empire: Sold gold, ivory, and people → got rich → built army.
Kongo: Traded with Portuguese, converted to Christianity, but eventually got exploited.
Some African elites got rich, others destabilized → massive social fragmentation and long-term trauma.

✊ Resistance Movements

Tokugawa Japan: At first welcomed trade → kicked out missionaries → isolated except for Dutch.
The Fronde (France): Nobles revolted over taxes → crushed → absolutism wins.
Maroon Societies: Escaped slaves (e.g. Queen Nanny in Jamaica) resisted, some gained treaties/freedom.

🛐 Christianity Spreads (and Shakes Things Up)

Missionaries followed explorers to the Americas, Africa, and Asia.
Some Indigenous peoples converted (sometimes forced, sometimes strategic).
In Africa, rulers like the King of Kongo converted to secure alliances.
Syncretic beliefs formed (Christianity + Indigenous/tribal religions).

🏛 Social Hierarchy Changes

In colonies, social class tied to race and ancestry:
- Peninsulares (Europe-born Spaniards)
- Creoles (American-born Spaniards)
- Mestizos (Spanish + Indigenous)
- Mulattoes (Spanish + African)
- Indigenous and Africans = bottom of the system
In Europe: nobles still held some power, but monarchs and merchants gained due to global trade.

🔁 Trade Networks: Change & Continuity

Indian Ocean: Europeans entered (Portugal, Dutch), but Asians (Gujaratis, etc.) still traded.
Overland trade (Silk Roads) still mattered, just not as dominant.
More trade = more labor (cotton in India, silk in China, sugar in the

Oh yeah, let’s go full throttle on Unit 5: Revolutions (1750–1900) — here’s a cram-style review that actually covers everything: political revolutions, ideologies, industrialization, social changes, labor systems, imperialism foundations — all of it.

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Unit 5: Revolutions — CRAM NOTES (1750–1900)

Theme: People got mad, factories blew up (sometimes literally), and the world never looked the same.

🧠 Enlightenment = The Spark

Emphasized reason, liberty, individual rights, and natural laws.
Inspired revolutions against monarchies and colonial rule.
🔑 Thinkers to know:
- John Locke: life, liberty, property (gov = contract, not divine)
- Rousseau: general will of the people
- Voltaire: freedom of speech & religion
- Montesquieu: separation of powers

🔥 Political Revolutions (Inspired by Enlightenment)

American Revolution (1776)

Colonists rebelled over taxes, lack of representation.
Inspired by Locke’s natural rights.
Result: U.S. founded as a democratic republic.

French Revolution (1789)

Economic crisis + social inequality = revolt.
Three Estates → Third Estate demands equality.
Radical phase = Reign of Terror.
Ends with Napoleon, who spread revolutionary ideals (but also became a dictator lol).

Haitian Revolution (1791)

Led by Toussaint Louverture.
First successful slave revolt → created Haiti.
France tried to stop it, but failed.

Latin American Revolutions

Inspired by Enlightenment + Napoleon’s distraction in Europe.
Leaders like Simón Bolívar fought for independence.
Most colonies became republics (but still had inequality).

🏭 Industrial Revolution (Starts in Britain)

Why Britain?

Natural resources (coal + iron)
Access to waterways
Capital + stable gov
Enclosure movement = cheap labor force

New Tech:

Steam engine (James Watt) → powers trains, ships, factories.
Textile machines (Spinning Jenny, power loom) → mass production.
Interchangeable parts (Eli Whitney) → assembly lines.

Impacts:

🚂 Transportation: Railroads, steamships = faster trade & migration.
🏙 Urbanization: Massive shift to cities → overcrowding, disease.
🧑‍🏭 Factory System: Harsh conditions, long hours, child labor.

🧪 2nd Industrial Revolution (late 1800s)

New energy: electricity, oil, steel (Bessemer process)
Chemicals, telegraph, telephone
Focus on consumer goods & global connectivity

💰 Capitalism vs. Alternatives

Capitalism

(Adam Smith,

Wealth of Nations

)

Free market, private ownership, competition = wealth

Socialism

(early reformers)

Wanted worker protections, redistribution, unions

Communism

(Karl Marx,

Communist Manifesto

)

Class struggle = Bourgeoisie (owners) vs. Proletariat (workers)
Prediction: revolution → classless society

✊ Social Reforms & Resistance

Workers fight back:

Labor unions: wanted higher wages, better hours, safer conditions
Strikes: pressured govs to pass reforms
Child labor laws, minimum wage, education laws eventually passed

Uprisings:

Taiping Rebellion (China): Led by Hong Xiuquan; wanted land reform, equality → bloodiest civil war in history
Ghost Dance Movement (U.S.): Indigenous spiritual resistance
Tanzimat Reforms (Ottoman Empire): Modernize military, education, laws
Self-Strengthening Movement (China): Reform without fully Westernizing

🌍 Global Consequences of Industrialization

Migration

🌍 Push: poverty, famine, war
🌎 Pull: jobs in factories or colonies
Indentured servitude rises (esp. Indian + Chinese labor in Caribbean, Africa, SE Asia)

Women’s Roles

Middle class women = more domestic, less public
Working class women = factory labor
Early feminist movements (Seneca Falls 1848)

Environmental Changes

Deforestation, pollution, urban waste, resource extraction

🔁 Continuity & Change

What changed:

Kings lost power, people gained voice (sorta)
Machines replaced muscle
World economies became connected

What stayed:

Social inequality
Colonial exploitation
Patriarchy (with a few cracks showing)

Oh yeah — here’s your mini cram-style reviews for Units 6–9. These are tight, no-fluff rundowns that still hit the most testable stuff.

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Unit 6: Imperialism (1750–1900)

Theme: Europe takes the globe… again. This time with trains, treaties, and trauma.

Why imperialism?
- Raw materials + markets = $$$
- “White Man’s Burden” + Social Darwinism = excuses to colonize
- Nationalism = flexing empire power
Types of rule:
- Direct (France): total control
- Indirect (Britain): local puppets
- Settler colonies (Australia, South Africa)
- Economic imperialism (China, Latin America)
Colonized resistance:
- Zulu Kingdom, Ashanti Wars, Mahdist Revolt
- Sepoy Rebellion (1857) in India
- Boxer Rebellion in China
Labor migrations:
- Indentured servitude from India + China
- Diaspora communities form abroad (Chinatowns, Little Indias)

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Unit 7: Global Conflict (1900–Present)

Theme: Two world wars, a depression, and the death of empires.

World War I (1914–1918):
- MAIN causes: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, Nationalism
- Trench warfare = stalemates + high death
- Treaty of Versailles = punished Germany → led to WWII
Interwar Period:
- Great Depression → rise of fascism (Hitler, Mussolini)
- Totalitarianism: propaganda, secret police, no dissent
- Authoritarianism spreads in Latin America, Japan, etc.
World War II (1939–1945):
- Hitler invades Poland → Allies declare war
- Genocide: The Holocaust
- Atomic bombs end the war in Japan
- UN formed to prevent future conflict

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Unit 8: Cold War & Decolonization (1945–1990s)

Theme: The world splits in two — capitalism vs. communism — while colonies fight for freedom.

Cold War superpowers:
- USA (capitalist) vs. USSR (communist)
- Proxy wars: Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan
- NATO vs. Warsaw Pact
Non-aligned movement:
- Countries like India avoided both sides
Decolonization:
- India (1947): Gandhi, nonviolent resistance
- Africa: Ghana (Kwame Nkrumah), Algeria = violent
- New states faced ethnic conflict, border problems
End of Cold War:
- Soviet Union collapses (1991)
- Berlin Wall falls (1989)

⚡

Unit 9: Globalization (1990–Present)

Theme: The world is hyperconnected — for better or worse.

Tech boom:
- Internet, cell phones, social media = fast info spread
- Green Revolution = more food, more people
Global economy:
- Free trade zones (NAFTA, EU)
- Outsourcing, multinational corporations
- Inequality widens: global north vs. global south
Social change:
- Feminism (esp. Global South), civil rights, LGBTQ+ movements
- Environmentalism rises as pollution & climate change worsen
Cultural globalization:
- Western media spreads
- Cultural blending: food, music, language

You got it — here’s a quick, clean Cram Glossary of Must-Know WHAP Terms across Units 1–9, with simple, test-day explanations. These are the ones that show up all the time — especially in MCQs and SAQs.

📘

WHAP Cram Glossary – Key Terms & Concepts

🔶

Belief Systems & Ideologies

Confucianism – Chinese philosophy based on respect, family, education, and hierarchy. Dominated gov exams and social values.
Neo-Confucianism – Blend of Confucianism + Buddhism + Daoism. Popular in Song & Ming China; reinforced patriarchy and order.
Filial Piety – Core Confucian value = respect for parents and ancestors.
Dar al-Islam – “House of Islam” = all Islamic territories under Muslim rule.
Sunni vs. Shia – Split in Islam: Sunni = leader by merit; Shia = leader must be a descendant of Muhammad.
Buddhism – Rejected caste; focused on suffering, reincarnation, enlightenment (nirvana).
Syncretism – Blending of beliefs (e.g. Sikhism = Hindu + Muslim elements).

🔶

Government & Politics

Divine Right – Monarchs are chosen by God (used to justify absolute power).
Mandate of Heaven – Chinese version of divine right; bad rulers lose it.
Absolutism – King holds total power (e.g. Louis XIV of France).
Social Contract – Enlightenment idea that governments must protect rights or be replaced (Locke).
Nationalism – Pride in one’s nation → drives revolutions and decolonization.
Fascism – Ultra-nationalist, authoritarian, anti-communist system (Hitler, Mussolini).
Communism – Classless society where the state controls production (Karl Marx).

🔶

Economic Systems

Mercantilism – Export-heavy economy. Colonies exist to benefit the mother country.
Capitalism – Private ownership, profit, supply/demand (Adam Smith).
Socialism – Gov plays bigger role in redistributing wealth, worker protections.
Joint-stock company – Group investors share profits/losses (e.g. VOC, British East India Co.).
Economic imperialism – Controlling a country’s economy without formal rule (e.g. Britain in China/India).

🔶

Labor Systems

Chattel slavery – People = property. Hereditary and racial.
Indentured servitude – Work contract for passage, usually temporary.
Encomienda – Spanish system of forced Indigenous labor in Americas.
Hacienda – Large estates in Spanish colonies; Indigenous labor tied to land.
Mit’a system – Incan labor tax; Spanish adapted it for mining.

🔶

Social Structures

Casta system – Colonial Latin America race-based hierarchy (Peninsulares > Creoles > Mestizos/Mulattoes > Natives & Slaves).
White Man’s Burden – Racist idea that whites must “civilize” other races.
Social Darwinism – Survival of the fittest applied to races/nations = justification for imperialism.
Patriarchy – Male dominance in society. Present in most world systems.

🔶

Global Concepts & Movements

Columbian Exchange – Transfer of people, plants, animals, and disease between Old and New Worlds.
Industrialization – Machines replace manual labor; starts in Britain.
Imperialism – One nation dominating another for resources/power.
Decolonization – Colonies gaining independence after WWII.
Globalization – Increased interconnectedness through trade, tech, and culture.
Diaspora – Scattering of people from their homeland (e.g. African, Chinese, Indian diasporas).

Want me to include this in the final PDF cram section too?

Note