Review of The Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution

5.1 The Enlightenment

  • Key Points:

    • Rationalism: Reason and rational thought are considered more reliable than emotions.
    • Empiricism: Knowledge is based on sensory experience (observations and experiments).

  • Historical Context:

    • The Enlightenment built on ideas from the Scientific Revolution, focusing on societal innovations.
    • Questioning the role of religion in society was prominent, leading to new belief systems:
    • Deism: Belief in a creator who does not intervene in the world.
    • Atheism: Complete rejection of the belief in God.

  • Political Ideas:

    • Individualism: Emphasizes the individual rather than collective groups.
    • Natural Rights: Fundamental rights that cannot be infringed upon by governments (e.g., rights to life, liberty).
    • Social Contract: Societies must create governments to protect their natural rights, with the right to overthrow tyrannical regimes.

  • Effects of the Enlightenment:

    • Major revolutions (American, French, Haitian, Latin) intensified nationalism.
    • Expansion of suffrage (e.g., increased voting rights).
    • Abolition of Slavery: Movement influenced by Enlightenment ideals; contrasted with oppressive natural rights violations.
    • End of Serfdom: Shift towards industrial economies reduced the need for coerced labor.
    • Growing demands for women’s suffrage:
    • Olympe De Gouges' "Declaration of the Rights of the Woman and the Female Citizen" criticized the marginalization of women.
    • Seneca Falls Convention in the USA called for constitutional amendments for women's voting rights.

5.2 Causes of Revolutions

  1. Rise of Nationalism:

    • Regions began to adopt specific cultures, fostering unity through education and public practices, although some attempts backfired (e.g., Russian language policies).

  2. Political Discontent with Monarchies:

    • Rebellion against monarchs and imperial rule was widespread, not just in famous revolutions:
    • Examples: Safavid Empire’s tax increases led to rebellion, Wahhabi movement weakened the Ottoman Empire.

  3. New Ideologies and Government Systems:

    • Popular Sovereignty: Governance rests with the people.
    • Democracy: Right to vote and influence policy.
    • Liberalism: Emphasis on civil rights, representative government, and economic freedoms.

  • Revolution Examples:

    • American Revolution: Colonies developed independently and resisted British taxation post-Seven Years War, resulting in the Declaration of Independence reflecting Enlightenment ideals.
    • French Revolution: Inspired by American ideals, the French revolted against King Louis over unfair taxes leading to the establishment of a republic emphasizing natural rights.
    • Haitian Revolution: Inspired by the French Revolution, Toussaint Louverture led the enslaved Haitians in a revolt against French colonizers.
    • Latin American Revolutions: Creoles like Simon Bolivar promoted Enlightenment ideals leading to independence wars.

  • Other Nationalist Movements:

    • Propaganda Movement in the Philippines educated citizens on Enlightenment ideas, leading to nationalist sentiments.
    • Unification of Italy and Germany saw fragmented states unite under the banner of nationalism.

5.4 Spread of Industrialization

  • Catalyst: The steam engine replaced reliance on water power, facilitating widespread technological adoption.

  • Regional Differences in Industrialization:

    • Southern Europe: Lacked coal, was landlocked, and faced power from the nobility, hindering progress.
    • Middle East/Asia: Decline of traditional textile industries due to British competition.

  • France: Slow industrialization due to limited resources; Napoleon's canal connected coal and iron resources.

  • USA: Favorable conditions led to rapid industrial growth, enhanced by natural resources and population growth.

  • Russia: Rapidly built railroads (notably the trans-Siberian railroad) to catch up with Europe, influenced by the state rather than individual entrepreneurs.

  • Japan: Defensive industrialization (Meiji Restoration) allowed Japan to modernize rapidly and become a regional power.

5.5 The Industrial Revolution

  • First Industrial Revolution:

    • Coal as main fuel for steam engines, impacting trade and transportation significantly.
    • Steam engines were widely used for locomotives and shipping, with the Suez Canal enhancing trade efficiency.

  • Second Industrial Revolution: Expanded industrialization beyond Britain, introducing:

    • Oil for internal combustion engines leading to automobiles.
    • Steel as a primary construction material from the Bessemer Process.
    • Advances in chemical engineering and electricity transformed manufacturing and urban infrastructure.

  • Technological Effects:

    • Development of interior regions through railroads and telegraphs led to economic growth and connectivity.
    • Increased trade and migration; urban areas expanded with job-seeking populations.

5.6 Economic Transformation in Industrialized States

  • States’ Shift in Power:
    • The fall of the Ottoman Empire contrasted with Egypt’s industrial attempts under Muhammad Ali, though external pressures from Britain stifled efforts.
    • Japan’s Meiji Restoration emphasized learning from Western powers to modernize and resist foreign domination.

5.7 The Transition from Mercantilism to Free Market Economics

  • Mercantilism: Abandoned for Free Market Economics, which promoted market-driven economies over state control.
  • Adam Smith: Critiqued mercantilism’s elite benefits and advocated laissez-faire economics, claiming it would lead to better wealth distribution.
  • Critics of Free Market:
    • Jeremy Bentham and Friedrich List raised concerns over free market impacts on working classes and national interests.
  • Formation of transnational corporations supported by new financial practices (e.g., stock markets).

5.8 Effects of the Industrial Revolution on the Working Class

  1. Political Reform:
    • New political parties emerged advocating for working class rights as voting rights expanded.
  2. Social Reform:
    • Labor unions formed to address the rights and welfare of workers.
  3. Educational Reform:
    • Increased demand for education prepared children for specialized jobs.
  4. Urban Reforms:
    • Governments implemented sanitation measures to improve living conditions.
  • Karl Marx: Predicted class divisions would lead to revolutionary changes, advocating for a classless society.

5.9 New Social Classes and Hierarchies During the Industrial Revolution

  1. Industrial Working Class:
    • Composed of factory workers and miners; faced dangerous working conditions and repetitive tasks.
  2. Middle Class:
    • Benefited most from industrialization, valued hard work and attributed social status to personal effort.
  3. Industrialists:
    • Controlled industrial wealth, surpassing traditional aristocracy in power and influence.
  • Challenges of Urbanization:
    • Overcrowding led to pollution, housing shortages, and increased crime, highlighting the urgent need for government intervention.