Plantation agriculture: cash crops (bananas, soybeans, sugarcane, etc). Primarily in less-developed countries
Increased use of greenhouses to raise crops
Hydroponics: growing plants in nutrient-rich water solutions rather than soil
Traditional Agriculture Often Relies on Low-Input Polycultures
Traditional subsistence agriculture: Human labor and draft animals for family food
Traditional intensive agriculture: Higher yields through the use of manure and water
Polyculture: Benefits over monoculture
Slash-and-burn agriculture: Subsistence agriculture in tropical forests. Clear and burn a small plot. Grow many crops and reduce soil erosion. Less need for fertilizer and water
Soil Formation and Generalized Soil Profile
Layers (horizons) of mature soils
O horizon: leaf litter
A horizon: topsoil
B horizon: subsoil
C horizon: parent material, often bedrock
A Closer Look at Industrialized Crop Production
Green Revolution: increase crop yields
Monocultures of high-yield key crops
Rice, wheat, and corn
Large amounts of fertilizers, pesticides, water
Multiple cropping
Second Green Revolution: Fast-growing dwarf varieties
Case Study: Industrialized Food Production in the United States
Agribusiness
The average farmer feeds 129 people. Annual sales greater than auto, steel, and housing combined
Food production: very efficient. Americans spend 10% of their income on food
Hidden costs of subsidies and costs of pollution and environmental degradation
Meat Production and Consumption Have Grown Steadily
Animals for meat raised in
Pastures and rangelands
Feedlots
Meat production increased fourfold between 1961 and 2007
Increased demand for grain
Demand is expected to go higher
What Environmental Problems Arise from Food Production?
Natural Capital Degradation: Food Production
Biodiversity Loss
Loss and degradation of grasslands, forests, and wetlands
Fish killed from pesticide runoff
Soil
Erosion
Loss of fertility
Desertification
Water
Water waste
Aquifer depletion
Increased runoff, sediment pollution, and flooding from cleared land
Air Pollution
Emissions of greenhouse gas
Human Health
Nitrat6es in drinking water
Pesticide residue on food, water, and air
Bacterial contamination of meat
Topsoil Erosion Is a Serious Problem in Parts of the World
Soil erosion: Movement of soil by wind and water
Natural causes
Human causes
Two major harmful effects of soil erosion
Loss of soil fertility
Water pollution
Excessive Irrigation Has Serious Consequences
Salinization: Gradual accumulation of salts in the soil from irrigation water
Lowers crop yields and can even kill plants
Affects 10% of world croplands
Waterlogging: Irrigation water gradually raises the water table
Can prevent roots from getting oxygen
Affects 10% of world croplands
Animal Feedlots
Advantages
Increased meat production
Higher profit
Less land use
Reduced overgrazing
Reduced soil erosion
Protection of biodiversity
Disadvantages
Large inputs of grain, fish meal, water, and fossil fuels
Greenhouse gas emissions
Animal waste can pollute water
Increase of genetic resistance to microbes in humans
Aquaculture
Advantages
High efficiency
High yield
Low fuel use
High profits
Disadvantages
Large inputs of land, feed, and water
Waste output
Loss of mangrove forests and estuaries
How Can We Protect Crops from Pests More Sustainably?
Nature Controls the Populations of Most Pests
Pest
Interferes with human welfare
Pesticides
Insecticides
Herbicides
Fungicides
Rodenticides
First-generation pesticides: Borrowed from plant
Second-generation pesticides: Lab-produced products such as DDT and others
David Pimentel: Pesticide use has not reduced U.S. crop loss to pests
1942-1997→ crop losses from insects increased from 7% to 13%, even with a 10x increase in pesticide use
High environmental, health, and social costs with the use
Use alternative pest management practices
Conventional Chemical Pesticides
Advantages
Save lives
Increase food supplies
Profitable
Work fast
Safe if used properly
Disadvantages
Promote genetic resistance
Kill natural pest enemies
Pollute the environment
Can harm wildlife and people
Are expensive for farmers
Integrated Pest Management Is a Component of Sustainable Agriculture
Integrated pest management (IPM): Chemical tools to reduce crop damage to an economically tolerable level. Reduces pollution and pesticide costs
How Can We Produce Food More Sustainably?
Reduce Soil Erosion
Soil conservation, some methods
Terracing
Contour planting
Strip cropping with cover crop
Alley cropping, agroforestry
Windbreaks or shelterbelts
Conservation-tillage farming
No-till
Minimum tillage
Soil Salinization
Prevention
Reduce irrigation
Switch to salt-tolerant crops
Cleanup
Flush soil (expensive and wastes water)
Stop growing crops for 2-5 years
Install underground drainage systems
Organic Farming
Improves soil fertility
Reduces soil erosion
Retains more water in the soil during drought years
Uses about 30% less energy per unit of yield
Lowers CO2 emissions
Reduces water pollution by recycling livestock wastes