During Adams’ presidency, people disliked the Alien and sedition acts
Though Adams avoided war he persuaded Congress to build US Navy.
Results: Majority of electors cast their ballots for the Democratic-Republican presidents (Thomas Jefferson + Aaron Burr)
Both candidates received the same number of electoral ballots so the election was sent to the House of Representatives
A Peaceful Revolution
- The peaceful passing of power from one political party to another

Jefferson’s Presidency

Carried on Washington’s neutrality
Reduced size of the military + eliminated many federal jobs + repressed excise taxes + lowered national debt
Louisiana Purchase
- Territory originally claimed by France
- Napolean
- Wanted to concentrate French resources on fighting Great Britain
- Toussaint Louveture's rebellion against French rule
- US Interest in Mississippi River → Western frontier extended beyond Ohio + Kentucky into Indiana → Settlers there depended on the Mississippi River for economy
- Negotiations: Jefferson sent ministers to negotiate for up to $10 million for New Orleans + land extending to Florida
- Napolean’s ministers offered to sell New Orleans + the entire Louisiana for $15 million
- Presidential Problems: Due to strict interpretation → (explicitly stated in the Constitution) Louisiana Purchase might have been illegal but it was for the good of the country
- Consequences: more than doubled the size of the US + removed European presence from the nation’s borders
- Louisiana Purchase was really important as it allowed more room for farming
- Lewis and Clark Expedition
- Before Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson orders Congress to appoint people to explore the west
- Lewis and Clark's expedition through the Oregon Trail (Cultural significance)
- Sacagawea helps with the expedition

Aaron Burr

Dem-Rep embarked on a series of ventures that threatened to break up the union + resulted in Alexander Hamilton’s death
Trial → jury acquitted burr basing its decision on Marshall’s definition of treason + lack of witnesses

John Marshall and the Supreme Court

John Marshall → Federalist judge who caused Jefferson the most grief
Case of Marbury v. Madison (1803) → Marbury sues Madison for not delivering his commission
Principle of Judicial review → ability of Supreme Court to declare acts of Congress and President unconstitutional
- Inadvertently increases the power of the Supreme Court
Fletch v. Peck (1803) → state could not pass legislation invalidating a contract
Martin v. Hunter’s Lease (1816) → supreme court had jurisdiction over state courts in cases involving constitutional rights
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) → contract for a private corporation could not be altered by state
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) → Constitution gave the federal government implied power to create a national bank
Cohens v. Virginia (1821) → est. the principle that the supreme court could review a state court’s decision involving the powers of the federal gov.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1821) → federal government’s board control of interstate commerce

Judicial impeachments

Jefferson tried various methods for overturning past Federalist measures and appointments
TJ suspended the Alien and sedition act
Supported the campaign for impeachment
House + Senate voted to impeach a judge of the federal district
House impeach Samuel Chase but Senate acquitted him after no evidence

Jefferson was also reelected → 2nd term was marked by growing difficulties

Election of 1808→ Madison won the election against Federalist, Charles Pinckney

4.3 Politics and Regional Interests

The Era of Good Feelings

James Monroe's years were marked by nationalism, optimism, and goodwill
In the election of 1816, James Monrow (Dem-Rep) defeated Rufus King (Federalist)

Economic Nationalism

Tariff of 1816
- Protective tariff for increased revenue
Henry Clay’s American system
- Strong banking w/ easy credit: 2nd bank of US
- Protective tariff for increased revenue → tariff of 1816
- Internal improvements for more transportation (roads, bridges, canals ie Erie Canal)
- Conflicts with Republican constitutional ideals(federal involvement)

Panic of 1819

1st major financial panic → occurred after the 2nd Bank of the US tightened credit in an effort to control inflation
Depression his West the hardest + voter outlook change + opposition to national bank and debtors
Nationalistic beliefs were shaken

Political Changes

Changes in Democratic-Republican Party
- Changed beliefs on a national bank, strict interpretation, + states’ rights

Western Settlement and Missouri Compromise

Reasons for Westward Movement
- Acquisition of cheap lands
- Economic pressures
- Improved transportation → roads canals, steamboats, railroads
- Immigrants → attracted to cheap land in Great Lakes
New Questions and issues
- Cheap money (from state banks then Bank of US)
- Low prices for land sold by the federal government
- Improved transportation
SLAVERY
- 1819 Missouri Territory applied to Congress for statehood but the slavery issue became a big debate
- Missouri Compromise
- Tallmadge amendment → no more slaves in Missouri + gradual emancipation of children slaves
- South angry as a threat to the sectional balance
- Admits Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state (Henry Clay)
- The set boundary at 36’30’’ parallel of Louisiana with North free state and south slave state
The aftermath of the Missouri Compromise → Sectionalism on the rise over North and South

4.4 America on the World Stage

Difficulties Abroad

Barbary pirates → to protect US merchant ships from barbary states they had to pay tribute to the governments
Tripoli demands a higher sum in tribute → Jefferson refused + sent a small fleet for 4 years
Challenges to US Neutrality → Napoleonic wars dominated Europe
France + Britain attempted a naval blockade of opponents
The British practice of capturing US sailors that claimed to be British citizens and impressing them to serve British
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair→ British warship (leopard) fired on US warship (Chesapeake) → Anti-British sentiment ran high
Embargo Act 1807
- Europe needs US raw materials
- Peaceful coercion closed the US to exports and restricted imports
- Embargo→ hope to push for freedom of seal
- Led to smuggling + political disaster: A FAIL
Nonimportation Acts 1809
- Passed after embargo act repeal: banned certain imports from Britain as an attempt to counteract British violations of neutrality
Non-Intercourse Act → opens trade with all nations except France + GB
Macon’s Bill No.2→ If one nation was willing to restore US trade they have to respect neutral sea rights

War of 1812

Causes:
- Madison believes war is inevitable, which helps support Republican
- Southerners + Westerners support: New England DOES NOT
Free Seas and Trade: Cheif belligerents had no interest in respecting neutral rights
Frontier Pressures :
- The old guard in Congress was replaced by young hot-headed Southerners & westerners
- War Hawks → Wanted war, expansion, Canada, and to remove native frontier
- Tecumseh & brother (Prophet) resisted white settlement to create an Indian resistance movement
- Funded by British
- William Henry Harrison: gov of Indiana in Battle of Tippecanoe → Tecumseh formally allies with British
War Hawks: Advocated war as a way to defend American Honor
Declaration of War after British Suspension of a naval blockade

A Divided Nation

Election of 1812
- Dem-Rep → strength in south + West
- Federalist and antiwar dem-reps opposition to the war in north
- Madison won reelection
- Opposition to war
- Quids viewed impressments as merely a minor inconvenience
- Quids criticized the war as it violated classic Dem-Reop commitment to limited federal power + maintenance of peace

Military Defeats and Naval Victories

Napolean’s continued success in Europe + US land campaign against Canada
Invasion of Canada: US army initiated military action in 1812 (3-part invasion) → served to encourage retaliation by the British
Naval Battles
- Defeating and sinking the British ship off the coast of Nova Scotia
- 1813, the Lake Erie battle led the way for victory at the Battle of Thames River
Chesapeake Campaign
- British army marched through Washington DC+ attempted to take Baltimore
- Francis Scott Key → “The Star-Spangled Banner”
Southern Campaign
- The plan implemented by the British to win the conflict by concentrating their forces in the southern states

Treaty of Ghent

Treaty of Ghent → Armistice
War Taught the British to respect the US, “war for independence”
1817 - US and Britain agreed to limit their naval forces on the Great Lakes
The northern boundary settled in 1818 and the 49th parallel between the Lake of the Woods and the Rocky Mountains
The US focused less on affairs with Europeans
The era of good feelings emergence, less sectionalism & rise of US manufacturing
- Rush-Bagot treaty 1817
Hartford convention 1816: didn’t want New England as subservient to South and West
Wanted to repeal ⅗ clause and a one-term president
Death of the federalist party

Monrow and Foreign Affairs

Canada
- Rush-Bagot Agreement(1817): the goal of significantly reducing both countries' burgeoning naval fleets stationed in the Great Lakes
- Treaty of 1818: set the western boundary between the United States and British North America (later Canada) at the forty-ninth parallel up to the Rocky Mountains
Florida
- America owned West Florida (1812), Florida under Spanish rule
- The colonial uprising in Latin America caused the Spanish to remove troops from FL
- Jackson & Seminoles → Without instructions Jackson moves through FL destroying Seminole villages, John Quincy Adams supports this and clears FL
- Adams-Onis treaty (1819) → US officially buys Fl from Spain

Monroe Doctrine

Annual message by Monroe, no colonization/intervention in the Western Hemisphere for self-defense
British Initiative: George Canning proposed a joint anglo-American warning to European powers not to intervene in South America
American Response: debates over joint action
Adam’s Reasoning
- If the US acted alone Britain could be counted upon to South America
- No European power would risk going to war in South America → British navy would destroy them
Great impact in imperialism + used to justify foreign policy

4.5 Market Revolution

Development of the Northwest

Agriculture
- Newly invented steel plow was more efficient and could plant more acres
Transportation
- Roads: Lancaster Turnpike + Cumberland Road → easier travel
- Canals: Erie Canal→ linked economies + lower food prices
- Steam Engines + Steamboats → revolutionized location of factories
- Railroads → rapid and reliable links to cities
Communication → Samuel F. B. Morse (1848) invented the telegraph which allowed for easier communication

Growth of Industry

Mechanical Inventions → Eli Whitney (cotton gin + interchangeable parts)
Corporations for Raising Capital → made it easier for a business to incorporate and raise capital by selling stocks
Factory system → Samuel Slater + expansion of financial business such as banking
Labor → textile mills + Lowell system
Unions → immigrant replacement workers, state laws outlawing unions, frequent economic depressions with high unemployment

Commercial Agriculture

Large areas of western lands made available at low prices
State banks made acquiring land easier with loans and interest rates
The development of canals opened markets in the growing factory industry

Cotton and the south

The cotton gin made cotton profitable + surplus

4.6 Effects of the Market Revolution on Society and Culture

Women

As America progresses the nature of work and family life changes for women → sought employment in the city
Women gaining more control over their lives
Sentimentalism changed the marriage scope

Economic and Social Mobility

The gap between the poor and the wealthy increased

Population growth

Immigration
- Development of inexpensive and rapid ocean transportation
- Famines and Revolutions in Europe
- The growing reputation of the US
Urban Life
- The north urban population grew → crowded city
- New opportunities in the North due to the industrial revolution
New Cities
- Buffalo, Clevland, Detroit, Chicago, Cincinnati, and St.Louis turned into shipping points + distribution of manufactured goods

Organized Labor

Shift in economy → created a small class of people who were very wealthy and growing middle class
An increasing number of union workers joined unions + participated in strikes
Commonwealth v. Hunt: ruled that labor unions were not inherently illegal organizations and that workers had the right to strike.
10 Hour workday for industrial workers
Improvement limited by periodic depressions, employers + court hostile to unions, abundant supply of low-wage workers

4.7 Expanding Democracy

Greater Equality

Visitors could not distinguish between classes in the US
Equality was becoming the governing principle of American society

Rise of A Democratic Society

Equality with all whites + no other races
Universal White Male Sufferage
- New states adopted constitutions that allowed all white males to vote and hold office
- White males could vote regardless of restrictions

Changes to Parties and Campaigns

Party Nomination conventions
- King Caucus → closed-door meeting of political party leaders
- Anti-masonic Party was the first to hold such a convention
Popular Election of the electors
- Other than SC all other states adopted democratic methods for electors
2 party system
- Campaigns on a national scale + large political parties
Rise of 3rd party (anti-masonic + workingmen’s party)
- Reached out to groups of people who previously had shown little interest in politics
- Antimasonic → attacked secret societies for masons
- Workingmen’s → unite artisans + skilled laborers
More elected offices: Jackson's presidency had a larger portion of the state and local officials elected into office
Popular campaigning: candidates directed the campaign to the interests + prejudices of common people
Spoils System and Rotation of Office Holders
- Appointing political supporters to government positions regardless of qualifications
- This system was used heavily by President Jackson and became a major source of political corruption
- Appoint some other more deserving person to the office

4.8 Jackson and Federal Power

Election of 1824

Although Andrew Jackson received the most popular votes and the most electoral votes, he did not receive enough electoral votes to be declared the winner
The election was ultimately decided by the House of Representatives, which selected John Quincy Adams as the winner.
After the election, Jackson and his supporters accused Adams and Henry Clay of making a "corrupt bargain" to ensure that Adams would win the presidency in exchange for Clay becoming Secretary of State

President John Quincy Adams

Adams asked for money for internal improvements, and to manufacture, and the national university
Revolution of 1828
- In the 1828 presidential election, Andrew Jackson defeated John Quincy Adams in a landslide victory
- The first president who was not from the Eastern elite
Presidency of Andrew Jackson (Old Hickory)
- Presidential power
- AJ presented himself as the representative of all the people
- Opposed federal spending + national debt
- Peggy Eaton Affair
- Peggy Eaton was accused of adultery and of being involved in the death of her first husband
- Led to her being socially ostracized by many of the other cabinet wives
- Jackson, who sympathized with the Eatons
- This led to tensions within the cabinet
- Indian Removal Act (1830)
- Authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living in the southeastern United States to Oklahoma.
- Thousands of Native Americans, including the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole nations, were forcibly removed from their ancestral lands and marched to Indian Territory on what became known as the Trail of Tears
- The Indian Removal Act has been widely criticized for its cruelty and violation of Native American rights.
- For cotton kingdom
- Nullification Crisis
- SC took the lead in protesting against the “Tariff of Abominations” with nullification
- Jackson threatened to use military force to enforce federal law in South Carolina
- Webster-Hayne Debate → Hayne argues for the rights of states, while Webster argued that states could leave the union
- The crisis was eventually resolved with a compromise tariff that lowered the tax rates on imported goods
- Opposition to Anti-slavery efforts
- Jackson used federal authority to retreat, militant advocates,
- used executive power to stop antislavery literature
- Bank veto
- Jackson thought the bank was too big + a symbol of a monopoly
- BOS didn’t print paper money only gold and silver
- Anti-egalitarian & undemocratic
- Daniel Webster + Henry Clay push for a recharter for BUS in 1832 (4 years before the recharter was due)
- Wants Jackson to lose because it will ostracize the separate groups
- Jackson vetoes recharter: goes against McCulloch v. Maryland

Two Party system

Democrats → supporters of Jackson
Whigs → rivals of Jackson

Jackson 2nd Term

Pet banks: withdraw all BUS funds to various state banks
Specie Circular:
- Required that payments for federal land be made in gold or silver, rather than paper money
- To prevent the inflation of land prices that had been caused by the widespread use of paper money
- Contributed to the Panic of 1837.

President Van Buren and the Panic of 1837

Economic depression caused by bank failures and a sharp decrease in the value of money
Martin Van Buren, who succeeded Jackson as president, struggled to address the crisis and was ultimately blamed for it

The “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” Campaign of 1840

Portrayed Harrison as a humble man of the people.
Unfortunately, Harrison died after only a month in office, making his presidency the shortest in American history.

Western Frontier

American Indians→ Exodus → majority of Natives living west
Mountain men → served as guides and pathfinders for settlers crossing mountains into California + Oregon

White settlers on the Western Frontier

Women → performed myriad daily tasks + isolation and endless work + short lifespan
Environmental Damage → Settlers would clear forests + wildlife + exhaust soil with poor farming
Beaver + Buffalo Nearing extinction

4.9 The Development of an American Culture

Transcendentalists

Group of writers and thinkers in the 19th century who believed in the power of individualism, nature, and spiritual transcendence
Emphasized the importance of intuition and personal experience over traditional authority and doctrine
Famous transcendentalists: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller
Brook Farm was a utopian community in West Roxbury, Massachusetts on the idea that a community of people could live in a more harmonious and cooperative way.
Disband in 1847 due to financial difficulties, it remains an important example of early American utopianism and the desire for a better society

Other communal Experiments

Shakers: religious sect that originated in 18th century England and later settled in America. They believed in celibacy, communal living, and the separation of the sexes.
The Amana Colonies: are a group of seven villages in Iowa that was established on the principles of communal living and mutual support, and were largely self-sufficient
New Harmony: small town located in Indiana in 1814 as a utopian experiment in communal living. The town was based on equality and mutual cooperation
Oneida Community: religiously-based socialist society in the United States that was founded by John Humphrey Noyes in 1848+ est. on the principle of complex marriage
Fourier Phalanxes: a political movement in France influenced by the ideas of Charles Fourier, a utopian socialist who believed in the creation of self-sustaining communities called phalanxes.
- The Fourier Phalanxes sought to establish these communities as a way to achieve social and economic equality

Arts and Literature

Painting → genre painting + portraying the everyday life of ordinary people
Architecture → inspired by the democracy of Athens
Literature → Transcendentalism + romantic + distinctively American
- Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Edgar Allen Poe

4.10 The Second Great Awakening

Causes of Religious Reform

Growing emphasis on democracy + individual-influenced politics
A rational approach to Religion
Market revolution → fear of industrialization + commercialism
Disruptions of the market revolution

Revivals

Timothy Dwight → President of Yale College
The motivated generation became evangelical preachers
Easily understood by uneducated

Revivalism on the frontier

Charles Grandison Finney: started a series of revivals in New York
Led to burnt-over district for frequent revivals

Baptists and Methodist

Would travel from location to location to attract thousands to hear preaching at outdoor reveals or camp meetings

New Denominations

Millennialism: religious enthusiasm was based on the belief that the world was about to end with the second coming of Jesus
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
- founded by Joseph Smith + led by Brigham Young
- Based on the Book of Mormon

4.11 An Age of Reform

Improving society

Reform movements evolved in the antebellum period

Temperance

High rate of alcohol consumption prompted reforms to target alcohol
American Temperance Society → Protestant minister concerned with drinking + effects found ATS
Washingtonians: argued that alcoholism was a disease that needed practical treatment
Later led to Woman’s Christian Temperance Union

Movement for Public Asylums

Mental Hospitals Dorthea Dix
- Dorothea Dix advocated for the creation of mental hospitals to help those suffering from mental illness.
- Mentally ill individuals were often imprisoned or placed in poorhouses, where they received inadequate care before
- Dix's advocacy led to the creation of several mental hospitals throughout the United States
School for Blind and Death Persons
- Thomas Gallaudet started school for deaf
- Dr. Samuel Gridely Howe started a school for the blind
- Special school modeled after this work in other states
Prisons
- Penitentiaries: new prisons
- Asylum movement: structure and disciple would bring out moral reform
- Auburn system: enforced rigid rules of disciple with moral instruction + work programs

Public Education

Free Common School Horace Mann
- Mann → worked for compulsory attendance for all children + increased pay
Moral education: wanted children to learn moral principles too
Higher education: 2nd Great Awakening → Growth of private colleges

Changes in Families and Roles of Women

Cult of domesticity: a system of cultural beliefs governing gender roles
Women’s rights: Sarah Grimke
Seneca Falls convention (declaration of sentiments) + Elizabeth Cady Stanton + Susan B. Anthony

Antislavery movement

The American Colonization Society: was founded in 1816 with the aim of establishing colonies in Africa for freed slaves to stop slavery + hindered by a lack of funding and support from the government.
The American Antislavery Society: an organization in the United States dedicated to the abolition of slavery. Persevered in its efforts to end the practice of slavery + emancipation
"The Liberator" book
The Liberty Party:1840, est. by abolitionists who were dissatisfied with the major political parties positions on slavery. The goal was to abolish slavery through political means.
Black abolitionists: Frederick Douglass + Harriet Tubman + David Ruggles, Sojourner Truth + William Still
Violent abolitionism (David Walker + Henry Highland Garnet)
- Advocated for the more radical solution to emancipation
- Nat Turner's Rebellion in Virginia, in August 1831 → enforced stricter slave codes

4.12 African Americans in the Early Republic

Exhaustion of soil + ban on the importation and enslaving of Africans made slavery economically unfeasible
Cotton Gin → Expansion of slavery

Free African Americans

North
- Free African Americans → formed their own Christian congregations
- Freedom did not mean economic or political equality for African Americans (AA)
- AA was often hired as strikebreakers
South
- Enslave became emancipated during American Revolution
- Blacks lived in cities where they could own their own property
- North had no greater opportunities