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PHILOSOPHY

Introduction to Philosophy and Self

• Philosophy influences clear, analytic thinking and inspires thoughtful exploration of life complexities.

• It emphasizes the importance of understanding oneself through critical reflection.

• Definition of Philosophy: Study of knowledge through rational inquiry, addressing the nature and existence of man and the world.

• Definition of Self: A unified being connected to consciousness, awareness, and agency.

Philosophical Perspectives on Self

Socrates

• Emphasized knowing oneself as the foundation of knowledge.

• Recognized ignorance as the starting point for acquiring wisdom.

• Utilized the Socratic Method: a dialogue of asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking.

• Believed understanding oneself fosters happiness and motivates actions

Plato

• Student of Socrates; promoted the idea of self-knowledge.

• Known as the Father of Academia; explored themes of virtue and intelligence in literature.

• Proposed the Tripartite Soul:

  1. Appetitive Soul: driven by desires and physical needs.

  2. Spirited Soul: linked to courage and competition.

  3. Rational Soul: the thinking part that plans and decides actions.

St. Augustine

• Emphasized God's influence on personal identity and existence.

• Believed understanding self involves reflecting on one's nature in relation to God.

• Suggested the essence of existence is rooted in God, stressing relationship with Him.

René Descartes

• Known as the Father of Modern Philosophy; introduced modern dualism (mind and body).

• Advocated for methodical doubt: questioning to reach self-understanding.

• Famous for "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), asserting that existence is confirmed through thought.

John Locke

• Introduced the idea of tabula rasa (blank slate), emphasizing experiences in forming identity.

• Asserted individuals are shaped by stimulation and learning from experiences.

David Hume

• Claimed the self is an accumulation of impressions and is impermanent.

• Believed our understanding of self is fluid and constantly evolving based on experiences.

Immanuel Kant

• Proposed that self-awareness arises from synthesizing experiences and emotions.

• Focused on transcendental apperception: consciousness of self that integrates experiences.

Sigmund Freud

• Father of Psychoanalysis: examined unconscious drives in personality development.

• Conceptualized the self in terms of the id, ego, and superego:

  1. Id: primal desires and pleasure-seeking part.

  2. Superego: moral compass and ideals shaped by societal norms.

  3. Ego: mediator between id and superego.

• Level of Consciousness:

  1. Conscious- where minority of our memories are being stored and the memories that are in the conscious is easier to be to be tapped or accessed

  2. Pre-conscious - the middle part of the entirety of our consciousness; the memories ustored in this area can still be accessed but with a little difficulty

  3. Unconscious- this area is where majority of our memories since childhood are deeply stored. It is very difficult to tap the memories. It would need a trained professional and several special techniques in order to make some memories resurface

Gilbert Ryle

• Suggested self is reflected through behavior, rejecting dualism of mind and body.

• Introduced "ghost in the machine" metaphor to describe human complexity.

Paul Churchland

• Argued self is connected to brain activity; focused on eliminative materialism.

• Posited that neural movements define behaviors and identity.

Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty

• Proposed phenomenology of perception, integrating mind and body as one.

• Believed perceptions guide actions and shape self-identity.

Thomas Aquinas

• Stressed that humans are a union of body and soul; the soul animates the body.

• Emphasized the importance of understanding human existence through both material and spiritual dimensions.
  

SOCIOLOGY

Sociological Perspectives on Self

George Herbert Mead

• Developed Symbolic Interactionism: self is formed through social interactions.

• Distinguishes between self-awareness and self-image based on societal perceptions.

Self-awareness

• the ability to focus on yourself and how your actions, thoughts, or emotions do or don't align with your internal standards.

Self-Image

• was developed in recognizing how others perceive us, we are constantly trying to put ourselves in the shoes of another and think about how they are seeing this event or situation or this action transpiring —- this is imitation.

Generalized Others

• When you have internalized the widespread cultural norms, mores, and expectations of behaviors.

I

• what is out there, acting, being spontaneous, doing things in the world.

Me

• an object, the aggregate combined image of yourself that has been given to

  you from interacting with society.

Henri de Saint-Simon

• Historic founder of French Socialism

• Origin of many ideas elaborated into Comtism

• His idea of the reconstruction of society were conditioned by the French Revolution and by feudal and military system

• He insisted on the necessity of new and positive reorganization of society

• Industrial chiefs should control society

• In medieval church, spiritual direction of society should fall to the men of science

• Industrial state directed by modern science, in which universal association should suppress war

• Men who are successfully able to organize society for productive labor are entitled to govern it

• The social aim was to produce things useful to life society of science influenced his disciple Auguste Comte

Herbert Spencer

Synthetic Philosophy - Encompasses realms of physical, psychological, biological,

sociological, and ethical.

Moral Philisophy

• Social Statistics - Human happiness can be achieved only when individuals can satisfy their needs and desires without infringing on the right of others to do the same.

  - In obtaining full satisfaction, one must derive pleasure from seeing pleasure in

  others

• Principles of Ethics - basic law of ethics and morality

  1. Extension of laws in the natural world, and much of his scientific justification for his moral position

  2. Moral dictum: Once physical and biological realms are discovered, humans should obey them and cease trying to construct, through political legislation, social forms that violate these laws

  3. Scientific position: The laws of social organization can no more be violated than can those of the physical universe, and to seek to do so will create, in the long run, more severe problems

  4. Humans should be as free from external regulation as possible — “implicitly obey them!”

• Social Statistics

  • Moral laws and laws of laissez-faire capitalism converge and how they reflect biological laws of unfettered competition and struggle among species

  • In the union of many men into one community —- the law of individuation

  • While decrying war as destructive, it allows more organized “races” to conquer the “less organized and inferior races”, increasing the level and complexity of social organization

Social Learning Theories

Albert Bandura

• Proposed that self-efficacy influences personal motivation and behavior.

• Major sources of self-efficacy:

  1. Mastery Experience - Successes build a robust belief in one’s personal efficacy

  2. Vicarious Experience - Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers’ beliefs that they too, possess the capabilities to master comparable activities required to succeed.

  3. Social Persuasion - People who are persuaded verbally that they possess the capabilities to master given activities are likely to mobilize greater effort and sustain it than if they harbor self-doubts and dwell on personal deficiencies when problems arise.

  4. Psychological Responses - People rely partly on their somatic and emotional states in judging their capabilities.

Karl Marx

• Described theory of self-estrangement or self-alienation: feeling detached from one’s work and society.

Max Weber

• Discussed capitalism and self in relation to social structures and ethical implications.

Exercise Self-Help Imagination

• “Personality” makes little sense in its modern usage

• “an inner devotion to the subject and only the the subject”

• which raises one “to the height and dignity of the subject”

• You gain personality within a field only by stepping out of your own self

• Teach the subject, not your interpretation of the subject

• Make your students interested in the subject itself, rather than in the person teaching it.

David Émile Durkheim

• Emphasized collective representations; societies shape concepts of self through shared norms.

• Sociology of Knowledge - How concepts and categories of logical thought could arise out of social life

• Collective Representation - Controlled by society (as a whole) yet simultaneously by virtue of that individual’s participation within the society

ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology and Culture

Anthropological View of Self

• Marcel Mauss introduced the idea of personne (social identity) and moi (core identity).

• Argued that selfhood stems from social context and cultural interactions.

Language and Culture

Language

• Has something to do with culture.

• It is a salient part of culture and ultimately, has a tremendous effect in our crafting of the self.

• This might also be one of the reasons why cultural divide spells out differences in how one regards oneself. If a self is born into a particular society or culture, the self will have to adjust according to its exposure.

Clifford Geertz

• Americal cultural anthropologist who defined culture as a “system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes towards life.

• Impact of Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man - Look for what makes people/cultures different, not the same; it is more effective to analyze human nature by noting the differences between cultures that arise over time and space than to try to form vague notions of universals

  - Culture reveals the link between what man is capable of and how he actually behaves, which in turn helps define human nature.

  - Culture is the "accumulated totality" of symbolic patterns that appear in different societies.

PSYCHOLOGY

Psychological Perspectives on Self

William James

• Conceptualized self through "Me" (social self) and "I" (thinking self).

• Identity- concept of an individual about himself and often referred to as “self-identity”

• “Self-identity” is the belief of what the individuals thinks and feels about him. And can also be influenced by how others perceive an individual

• Self-development - continuous process throughout the lifespan; one’s sense of self may change, at least somewhat, throughout one’s life.

• Self-representation has important implications for socio-emotional functioning

  throughout the lifespan.

Attitidunal Change

• “The greatest discovery of my generation is that human beings can alter their lives by altering their attitudes of the mind” - William James

Carl Rogers

• Introduced concepts of self-concept and unconditional positive regard in personality development.

Unconditional Positive Regard

• UPR refers to accepting and supporting another exactly as they are, without evaluating or judging them.

• This term is attributed to Carl Rogers

Identity

• Identity is composed of personal characteristics, social roles and responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define who one is.

Self Concept

• how someone thinks about or perceives themselves. “the individual’s belief about himself or herself, including the person’s attributes and who and what the self is”

Self-schema

• is our organized system or collection of knowledge about who we are. It may also include our interests, work, course, age, name, and physical characteristics. As you grow and adapt to the changes around you, self-schema also changes.

Roles

• are also part of his identity. (E.g. birth order in the family, nature of work, occupation or title, academic and social standing)

Existential self

• The concept that you are unique/different from others, Subjective (I)

Categorical self

• concept (and the concept of others) tends to focus on his or her own visible characteristics, Objective (ME).

Self Image

• Real Self, who you are at the moment (e.g. as a student you are interested in basketball but academically challenge in most of your subjects), Self image includes: Physical description, Social Roles, Personal traits, existential statements

Ideal Self

• who you like to be (e.g.- to practice more and play with the varsity team) is

  how we want to be. It is an idealized image that we have developed over time, based on what we have learned and experienced. Could include components of what our parents have taught us, what we admire in others, what our society promotes, and what we think is in our best interest.

Ought Self

• Self Esteem/Self Worth, who you think you should be (e.g. to pass your

  subjects as a responsible student) Our group identity and self-awareness also has a great impact on our SELF- ESTEEM, one of the common concepts associated with the “self”. It is defined as our own positive and negative perception or evaluation of ourselves.

Self Actualization

• refers to the need for personal growth and development throughout one's

  life. It is the highest level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which was developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Once you are self-actualized, you've met your full potential as an individual.

Self-Esteem and Self-Worth

• Discusses the impact of self-perception on behavior and emotional health.

Social Comparison Theory

• One of the ways in which our social relationship affects our self-esteem is through social comparison. According to the Social Comparison Theory, we learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our behaviors, as well as our social status by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people.

• Downward Social Comparison - is the more common type of comparing ourselves with others. We create a positive self-concept by comparing ourselves with those who are worse off than us. By having the advantage, we can raise our self-esteem.

• Upward Social Comparison - comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us. While it can be a form of motivation for some, a lot of those who do this felt lower self-esteem as they highlight more of their weakness or inequities.

• SOCIAL COMPARISON also entails what is called Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory. In this theory, we can feel threatened when someone out-performs us, especially when that person is close to us (i.e, a family or a friend).

Carver and Scheier

• The Private Self - your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings

• The Public self - public image commonly geared toward having a good presentation of yourself to others.

Self Conciousness

• is when self awareness can be too much that we are concerned about being observed and criticized by others.

• Looking outside - seeing other people who are better and dreaming to become the same.

• Looking inside

Sigmund Freud

• Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, the clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.

• provided not only a revolutionary way of understanding human personality but also how society affects our psychology. Freud's theory of human personality revealed another facet of society.

• Socialization - lifelong process of learning the ways and behaviors appropriate to particular society, is not only an external or structural process but also an internal, mental process.

Freud’s view of human nature

• human beings are biological organisms motivated by the satisfaction of bodily needs and with motivating forces that drive behavior.

True vs. False Self

• Contrasts the authentic identity with the adapted identity shaped by societal expectations.

The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought

Western Thought on the Self

Individualistic Orientation

• Emphasizes personal rights, self-reliance, and independent thinking.

Dualism

• Often views the self as distinct from others and the environment, emphasizing separateness.

Focus on Rationality

• Seeks truth through reason and empirical evidence.

Self-Descriptions

• Focus on personal attributes and achievements.

• Highlights individuality and personal accomplishments.

Values:

• Personal growth and success.

• Equality and merit-based recognition.

Philosophical Influences:

• Western philosophers like René Descartes emphasized the mind-body distinction and individual self-awareness (“I think, therefore I am”).

• Existentialism and humanism stress self-determination and personal responsibility.

Eastern Thought on the Self

Collectivistic Orientation

• Focuses on social responsibility, interdependence, and community harmony.

Holistic View

• The self is interconnected with others, nature, and the cosmos.

Acceptance of Reality

• Emphasizes balance, harmony, and accepting life’s realities.

Self-Descriptions:

• Reflect social roles and collective relationships.

• Avoid self-promotion to maintain social harmony.

Values:

• Hierarchical respect and proper conduct.

• Group success and preservation of societal balance.

Philosophical Influences:

Confucianism

• Highlights filial piety, proper conduct, and benevolence. The self is deeply tied to societal roles and responsibilities.

Taoism

• Stresses living in harmony with the Tao (universal way), balance, and simplicity.

Buddhism

• Advocates overcoming suffering through detachment, recognizing the impermanence of life, and attaining enlightenment.

Comparison: Western vs. Eastern Thought

Core Philosophical Traditions in Eastern Thought

Confucianism:

• Self is tied to community and societal roles.

• Emphasizes virtues like righteousness (Yi), integrity (Xin), and knowledge (Zhi).

Taoism:

• Self is an extension of the cosmos, living in harmony with nature and others.

• Advocates simplicity and the balance of opposing forces (yin-yang).

Buddhism:

• Denies a permanent self (anatta).

• Focuses on transcending desires and attachments to achieve nirvana (enlightenment).