APUSH Exam Review Timeline
Period 1: 1491-1607
Indigenous cultures prior to European contact:
Diverse Societies:
Coastal fishing villages
Nomadic hunter-gatherers
settled horticulturalists
large city-centered empires
Aztecs:
1325 CE: built capital Tenochtitlan in Mexico City
tributary system that supported large population
called themselves Mexica; were semi-nomadic warriors that invaded & settled in the region
drew on locals knowledge of irrigation & cultivation, adopted their written language
commoners tilled communal land & were ruled by priests and nobles
nobles formed a warrior class & owned vast estates where serfs and enslaved people captured from non-Aztec communities were employed
priests promised fertility in exchange for 1000s of sacrifices from captured tribes
increased agriculture through Chinampas:
artificial islands in well-watered swamps/lakes
creates plots of good soil
increased maize, bean, and squash production
extended trade networks
offered pottery, cloth, & leather goods in exchange for textiles and obsidian (tool & weaponry production)
enslaved people
Maya:
slowly settled vast region south of Tenochtitlan & spread up into Yucatan peninsula (900 BCE - 300 CE)
large cities w/ skilled artisans
elaborate system of irrigation & water storage
farmers worked fields & built stone temples/palaces for rulers (divine right)
mathematical calculations, astronomical systems, hieroglyphic writing, & a calendar
Decline in ~ 800 CE
economic crisis (drought & heavy taxation) drove peasants to the interior
towns & religious centers abandoned
surviving communities reemerged as thriving city-states centuries later (trading w/ Aztecs by 16th century)
Incas:
Andes Mountains along the Pacific Coast
15th Century = height of power
controlled 16 million people over 350,000 square miles
expansive system of roads & garrisons
flow of food, goods, & soldiers from Cuzco (capital) to surrounding mountains + valleys
cultivated fertile mountain valleys through terraces watered by elaborate irrigation system
Cuzco:
11,000 ft above sea level
center of the Incan Empire
residents cultivated potatoes + other crops
miners dug gold & silver from the mountains —→ artisans crafted jewelry & decorative items
1000s of laborers constructed elaborate palaces & temples
priests sacrificed humans to stave off natural disasters + military defeat
1492: Europeans become aware of the Americas following Christopher Columbus's voyage, leading to increased exploration and colonization efforts. The Columbian Exchange of goods and diseases across the Atlantic begins.
Africa, the Americas, & Western Europe were knit together into an “Atlantic World“ as the French, Dutch, and English established their own colonies in the New World
The Great Dying: A dramatic decrease in Native American populations due to diseases brought by European explorers and settlers, resulting in the loss of an estimated 90% of some Indigenous communities.
1494: The Treaty of Tordesillas divides Spanish and Portuguese claims to the Americas
1512: Spain subjugates Native Americans through the Encomienda system
1525: The transatlantic slave trade begins expanding
1607: The first permanent English colony is established at Jamestown
Period 2: 1607-1754
Spanish Colonies: developed extensive trade networks and focused on extracting resources, primarily through the encomienda system, which granted colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from Indigenous peoples.
French Colonies: primarily established fur trading posts and developed alliances with various Indigenous tribes, relying on trade rather than large-scale agriculture.
Dutch Colonies: centered around trade in fur and established New Amsterdam as a bustling commercial hub, fostering a diverse population due to their more tolerant policies towards different religions and cultures.
British Colonies: focused on agricultural production, establishing plantations that relied heavily on enslaved laborers, particularly in the southern regions, while the northern colonies developed mixed economies that included small-scale farming, fishing, and trade.
Jamestown:
arrived on Chesapeake Bay April 1607
settled by 104 colonists, including John Smith
Depended on the Powhatan Confederacy (30 tribes, 14,000 Algonquians) for survival
1606-1610: “Starving Time” in Jamestown, a period marked by severe food shortages and harsh winter conditions, during which many colonists died and the settlement struggled to maintain its population.
settlers became emboldened when 3 ships with supplies & 300 more settlers arrived —→ more aggressive military strategy
discovery of tobacco saved the Virginian colony
House of Burgesses established
Maryland:
2nd Chesapeake Colony
established by King Charles I; became a refuge for English Catholics seeking to escape religious persecution in Protestant England
governed by Catholic Cecilius Calvert
Act of Religious Toleration in 1649
Carolina Colony:
established in 1660 by Charles II
eight English noblemen established as leaders
economy relied on tobacco plantations
labor shortages as conditions improved in England, led to the increased importation of enslaved Africans to meet the demands of the growing agricultural economy. —→ formal slave code adopted
1608: French settlers establish their first colony, Quebec
1619: Jamestown settlers establish the first elected legislature is the English colonies (House of Burgesses); Dutch traders sell the first Africans in Jamestown
1620: Pilgrims land in Plymouth, founding the first New England colony
1632: Maryland Colony established
1649: Act of Religious Toleration in Maryland; This law granted religious freedom to all Christians, marking a significant step towards the separation of church and state.
1660: Carolina Colony established
1664: The British capture Dutch New Amsterdam, which becomes New York
1676: King Philip’s war erupts, marking Native American resistance to colonization
1733: Georgia, the final British colony, is established
1754: The French and Indian War begins, pitting British colonists against the French and their Native American allies (also referred to as the Seven Years' War)
Period 3: 1754-1800
Enlightenment:
Deism: belief in God, but specifically who established natural laws & never intervened in human affairs —→ set rules but allowed people to make choices
Rationalism: trust in human reason to understand the natural world & respond to issues in society; emphasis on studying science and human behavior rather than biblical interpretations
The Social Contract: an agreement among people to form a gov. to promote liberty & equality; power came from below not above (divine right of kings)
Women in the Revolutionary Era:
Daughters of Liberty
organized boycotts
cooks + nurses at camps
some took their husbands place in battle or passed as men to serve as soldiers
maintained colonial economy during the war; ran family farms + businesses
provided food + clothing necessary for the war effort
Republican Motherhood: born from combination of hearing revolutionary rhetoric & being actively engaged in struggle for independence; called for education of women so they could teach their children the values of the new republic → slightly more active role in society, though it still limited women to primarily domestic spheres
Regions:
New England:
Rocky soil & long winters made large-scale agriculture challenging, leading to a focus on small subsistence farms and manufacturing as key economic drivers in the region
logging, shipbuilding, fishing, trading, and rum-distilling
Middle Colonies:
rich soil = abundance of wheat and corn to export to Europe + West Indies
farms of up to 200 acres
variety of small manufacturing efforts developed, including iron-making
diverse population with various cultural and religious backgrounds, contributing to a rich social fabric
Philadelphia and New York emerge as major commercial centers, facilitating trade and commerce.
Southern Colonies:
diverse geography + climate = variety of agricultural practices
self-sufficient colonial plantations that relied on slave labor
most plantations were located on rivers so they could ship exports to Europe
Chesapeake + North Carolina colonies = tobacco
Carolinas = timber & naval stores
South Carolina + Georgia = rice and indigo
1754: French and Indian War begins
The Albany Plan of Union proposed by Benjamin Franklin; recognized the need for a coordinated colonial defense; never took effect but set the precedent for later Congresses c. 1770s
British PM William Pitt concentrated military on conquering Canada
1758: British forces capture Fort Louisburg, marking a significant turning point in the war and boosting colonial morale.
1759: The British achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Quebec, leading to the eventual surrender of the French and a shift in power in North America.
1760: British take Montreal
1763:
The Treaty of Paris ends the French and Indian War
Great Britain acquires French Canada + Spanish Florida
France ceded Louisiana to Spain, ending French power on the continent
Great Britain = unchallenged supremacy in North America
challenged autonomy of Native Americans
established Great Britain as global naval power
Pontiac’s Rebellion
Chief Pontiac led attacks on Colonial settlements, enraged by Westward expansion and refusal to offer gifts as the French had
British troops sent to put down uprising
Proclamation of 1763 prohibits settlement past the Appalachian Mountains in attempt to stabilize the Western frontier—→colonial resentment builds
British View: low opinion of colonial military abilities; poorly trained & disorderly; colonists were both unwilling & unable to defend new frontiers
Colonial View: developed confidence in ability to provide self-defense; British troops + leadership in warfare were badly suited to densely wooded terrain of Eastern America
Reorganization of British Empire: initial policy of salutary neglect abandoned; maintained large military force to guard new American frontier; increased taxation to bear cost of maintaining the British empire
1764: Sugar Act placed duties on foreign sugar & certain luxuries; wanted to regulate the sugar trade to raise revenues; stricter enforcement of the Navigation acts, targeted smuggling
1765:
Quartering Act: Required colonial assemblies to provide housing and supplies for British troops stationed in America
Stamp Act: Imposed direct taxes on printed materials, including newspapers and legal documents; led to widespread protests and the formation of the Sons of Liberty.
*** first direct tax that taxed the people and not imports
The Stamp Act Congress: representatives from 9 colonies met in New York; believed that only their own elected colonial representatives had the legal authority to approve taxes
Sons + Daughters of liberty organized for purpose of intimidating tax agents
destroyed revenue stamps
tarred & feathered revenue officials
Boycotts against British imports = most effective form of protest
1765-1766: fashionable to not purchase anything of British origin; London merchants put pressure on Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act
1766: Declaratory Act; was a face-saving measure; asserted that parliament had the right to tax & make laws for the colonies in all cases; declaration of total power
1767: Townshend Acts enacted; imposed duties on imported goods such as tea, glass, and paper, leading to renewed tensions and further boycotts; Writ of Assistance introduced (permanent search warrant)
Colonial Reaction:
initially accepted because it was indirect; paid my merchants who inflated prices to bridge the gap
was later seen as violation of “No taxation without representation”
1770:
repeal of the Townshend Acts (damaged trade + had small revenue); ended colonial boycott and was a small respite/period of political peace
Boston Massacre: crowd of colonists harassed guards near customs house; guards fire into the house, killing five; Samuel Adams inflames anti-British sentiment by calling it a massacre —→ renews conflict
1772:
Committees of Correspondence established by Samuel Adams to promote communication between the colonies; aimed at coordinating responses to British policies and fostering unity among the colonies.
Group of colonists burned the Gaspee when it landed off the shore of Rhode Island
1773:
Tea Act of 1773
Boston Tea Party
1774:
Intolerable Acts (aka Coercive Acts - A series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party. ) Made of 4 Acts:
The Port Act: closed Boston port & prohibited trade until tea was paid for
The MA Gov. Act: restructured the Massachusetts government, limiting town meetings and giving the royal governor greater control.
The Administration of Justice Act: allowed royal officials accused of crimes in Massachusetts to be tried in England, effectively shielding them from colonial justice.
Expanded the Quartering Act
Quebec Act: extended the boundaries of Quebec, recognizing the rights of Catholics to practice their religion and effectively disregarding colonial claims to western territories.
Demand for independence intensifies as crackdowns on resistance forced more and more colonists to choose sides
British Supporters: Wealthy merchants in NY + PA and planters in the Southern Colonies who benefitted from British trade
Opponents: Virginia farmers, frontiersmen, and many artisans in urban centers who sought greater autonomy and resented British control over colonial affairs, especially in Boston + New England
1774: The First Continental Congress meets is Philadelphia; all colonies except Georgia met
1775:
April 18: Lexington & Concord; British troops march to confiscate colonial weapons; the "shot heard 'round the world" marks the start of the Revolutionary War.
May: 2nd Continental Congress convenes in Philadelphia, aiming to address colonial grievances and coordinate military efforts while appointing George Washington as commander of the Continental Army.
June 17: The Battle of Bunker Hill; results in a costly victory for the British and demonstrating the determination of colonial forces.
July: The Olive Branch Petition is sent to King George III by the Second Continental Congress, expressing a desire for peace and reconciliation, but is ultimately rejected.
August: King responds with Prohibitory Act, declaring all colonies in rebellion and implementing a naval blockade.
1776:
Common Sense by Thomas Paine; argued for independence in clear and forceful language, directly attacking King George III + the concept of monarchy
July 4th: The Declaration of Independence marks separation from Great Britain
Revolutionary War officially breaks out
British Strengths: far greater resources, 3 x the population, wealthy economy, large + well-trained army, powerful navy, experience fighting overseas in N. America, W. Indies, & S. Asia
Patriot: most were from New England states + Virginia; most were reluctant to travel outside their own region; many would take breaks from serving to tend their farms; Washington never had more than 20,000 regular troops; chronically short of supplies, poorly equipped, & rarely paid
1777: The Battle of Saratoga convinces the French to enter the war as allies of the Patriots, marking a turning point in the conflict; widened the war, forcing GB to divert military resources from America
by 1777, 10 of the former colonies had written a new constitution, most adopted by state legislatures
heated discussion as conservatives stressed need for law & order while liberals emphasized protection individual rights + preventing future tyrannies
1781:
Articles of Confederation finally ratified; originally submitted to the States for ratification in 1777 but delayed by dispute over state claims to Native land west of the Alleghenies
Structure:
Central gov. w/ unicameral legislature
each state = 1 vote
9/13 votes needed to pass important laws
amending articles required unanimous vote
committee of states could make minor decisions
intentionally weak; had intense fear of a strong centralized gov. that could fall to tyranny
Could:
wage war
make treaties
send diplomatic reps.
borrow money
Could Not:
regulate commerce
collect taxes
no executive power to enforce laws
British surrender at Yorktown; last major battle of the revolutionary war
1783: The Treaty of Paris ends the Revolutionary War
Britain would recognize the existence of the US as an independent nation
The Mississippi River would be the Western boundary of that new nation
Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada
Americans would pay debts owed to British merchants & honor loyalist claims for confiscated property
1785: Land Ordinance of 1785
policy for surveying + selling western lands
1 square mile of land in each 36 square mile township for public education
1786-1787: Shay’s Rebellion
Daniel Shays (MA farmer & war veteran) led revolt against high taxes, imprisonment for debt, & lack of paper money
stopped collection of taxes/forced closure of debtor’s courts
attempted to seize weapons from Springfield Amory; stopped by state militia
revealed limitations of the AOC:
Foreign Affairs: European nations had little respect for nation that couldn’t pay debts or take united action in a crisis
could not enforce Treaty of Paris
too weak to stop Britain from maintaining military outposts
couldn’t restore loyalist properties or pay foreign debts
Economic Problems: Congress had no taxing power
could only request states donate money
no dependable source of revenue
inflation from worthless money
states had large debts
limited credit + reduced foreign trade
economic depression
Internal Conflicts: 13 States treated each other as rivals
competed for economic advantages
tariffs + restrictions across state lines'
boundary disputes (no fed. power to settle them)
interstate tensions
1786: The Annapolis Convention convened to address weaknesses of the AOC; agreed that additional discussion was necessary and called for a new convention in Philadelphia.
1787:
Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia
debate over revision of AOC vs starting over
New Jersey Plan: favored smaller states; equal representation
Virginia Plan: favored larger states; proportional representation
The Great Compromise: proposed by Roger Sherman of Connecticut
Bicameral Congress:
Senate w/ equal representation
House of Representatives w/ proportional representation
Slavery:
South: Slave population should be counted in calculation of representation
North: no rights as citizens = no representation
3/5 Compromise for representation + taxation
Trade:
North: Central gov. should regulate interstate commerce + foreign trade
South: feared export taxes on agricultural products
Commercial Compromise: power over interstate + foreign trade, could tax imports but not exports
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
set rules for creating new states in the large territory between the Great Lakes & Ohio River
limited self gov. for developing territory
prohibited slavery in the region
1788: The United States Constitution is ratified, creating a stronger federal government and replacing the Articles of Confederation.
Federalists agree to adding Bill of Rights, gaining necessary Anti-Federalist support for ratification
colonial racism + greed for land = view of Native Americans as obstacles to settlement that should be removed; hypocrisy as settlers believed revolutionary ideals of liberty & equality did not apply
1789- 1799: French Revolution
1789: George Washington takes office as the country’s first president
The Judiciary Act establishes Supreme Court w/ 1 Chief Justice + 5 associate justices and set system of 13 district courts + 3 circuit courts of appeal
1790: Indian Intercourse Act put federal gov. in control of all legal actions w/ Native Americans → only fed. gov., not states, could purchase land & regulate trade (largely ignored by settlers)
1791-1804: Haitian Revolution
additional creole revolutions in Latin America
1791: The Bill of Rights is adopted, guaranteeing individual freedoms and limiting the power of the federal government.
1793:
The Cotton Gin is invented by Eli Whitney, revolutionizing the cotton industry and increasing the demand for slave labor in the South.
Proclamation of Neutrality: declares the United States' intention to remain neutral in conflicts between European nations; US was not strong enough to engage in a European War; Issued against popular opinion
1794:
The Whiskey Rebellion occurs, demonstrating the federal government's ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws.
Westerners resented unwarranted use of force on the common people
Thomas Jefferson gains popularity in the West
The Jay Treaty: a settlement between the United States and Great Britain that aimed to resolve lingering issues from the Revolutionary War (impressment, occupation of posts on US western frontier) and establish trade relations; helped to prevent war but was met with significant opposition from those who felt it favored British interests.
1795: The Pickney Treaty negotiated in response to Spain consolidating its hold in North America
Spain opened lower Mississippi River + New Orleans to American trade
right of deposit granted to Americans (could transfer cargo w/o paying duties)
Spain accepts US claim that Florida’s northern boundary should be at the 31st parallel
1796:
Public Land Act encouraged rapid settlement + established orderly procedure at moderate price
Washington’s farewell address
1797: John Adams becomes 2nd President
XYZ Affair (1797-1798): Americans were angered by French warships + privateers seizing US merchant ships; Adams sent delegation to Paris to negotiate but French ministers (xyz) demanded bribes before negotiations; US delegates refused and anti-French sentiment strengthened
1798: The Alien and Sedition Acts are enacted, allowing the government to deport foreigners and criminalizing the expression of opposition to the government, which raises questions about civil liberties; meant to restrict Democratic Republicans
Naturalization Act: targeted immigrants who often voted Democratic Republican
Alien Act: allowed the president to deport any foreign national deemed dangerous to the nation's security during wartime
Sedition Act: made it illegal to criticize the president or Congress
1798: United Irishmen rise against British rule
The Constitution
Federalism: division of power between federal and state governments
Federal:
issues that affected the entire nation
national defense
foreign affairs
issues that crossed state boundaries
interstate commerce
postal service
States:
schools
local elections
Separation of Powers & Checks and Balances: The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to prevent any one branch from exerting too much power.
Legislative: Congress (Senate + HR) makes laws, passes taxes, allocates spending
must approve treaties made by president
can override presidential vetoes w/ a 2/3 vote in both the House and the Senate
Executive: led by president, recommends/enforces laws + federal programs
can veto laws passed by congress
appoints Supreme Court Justices
Judicial: Supreme Court + all lower federal courts, interprets laws + constitution
power to stop law enforcement if unconstitutional
Bill of Rights: First 10 Amendments
Period 4: 1800-1848
Themes
Consequences of the Louisiana Purchase
more than doubled the size of the nation
removed European presence from the nation’s borders
extended western frontier to lands beyond the Mississippi River
strengthened hope for Jefferson’s agrarian society
increased Jefferson’s popularity despite contradicting his strict constructionist policy
Federalists made out to be a weak, sectionalist party
Judicial Impeachments
Federalist appointments to courts could not be overturned except by impeachment
Jefferson supported campaign of impeachments → was largely a failure but threat of impeachment caused judges to be more cautious / less partisan
Judicial Review
established during Marbury v. Madison
Supreme Court could decide if actions of other 2 branches were constitutional
Sacrificed small Federalist gain for doctrine of Judicial Review
The Tariff of 1816
US factories had emerged during the War of 1812
in peacetime, Congress raised tariffs to protect US manufactures from foreign competition
Support: South + West
Opposition: New England → only section w/ little manufacturing at the time
Henry Clay’s American System
comprehensive system for advancing the nation’s economic growth
Protective Tariffs → protect US manufacturing + raise revenue
National Bank → national currency
Internal Improvements → federally constructed roads + canals
Support: protective tariffs already installed; chartered 2nd Bank of US
Opposition: Madison + Monroe
strict constructionists
Constitution did not explicitly state spending of federal money
Monroe consistently vetoed acts providing funds
Market Revolution
linking of Northern Industries w/ Western + Southern farms
Roads: Lancaster Turnpike (Philadelphia to rich farmlands) & National/Cumberland Road (Maryland to Illinois)
Canals: Western farms w/ Eastern cities
Steam Engines + Steam Boats: trips reduced by ½
Railroads: linked North + Midwest (less common in South)
Start of 19th Century: manufacturing economy had barely begun
Mid-19th Century: Manufacturing surpassed agriculture in value
19th Century’s End: World leader in manufacturing
Mechanical inventions
Corporations
Factory system (Lowell mills)
Unions
Commercial agriculture over subsistence
Expanding Democracy & The Politics of the Common Man
voting rights expand to all white men
1824-1840: politics transitions into homes of lower + middle classes
increased voter participation
1830: Nominating conventions emerge
2 party system = campaigns conducted on national scale
rise of 3rd parties
more elected officials
popular campaigning emerges → large rallies, parades, mudslinging
Jackson
Spoils System → “Victors Seize the Spoils“
Rotation in Office → limited a person to 1 term in office to encourage the rotation of political positions and prevent the establishment of a career political class.
→ contributed to 2 Party System:
Democrats: Jackson; reflected Democratic-Republican Party of Jefferson
Whigs: resembled defunct federalist party of Hamilton; supported spending federal money on infrastructure
American Culture
Cultural Nationalism
Transcendentalism: new movement of Romanticism
intuition
feelings
individual acts of heroism
study of nature
included Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau
“Walden“
“On Civil Disobedience”
Communal living / Utopian societies
Brook Farm, Shakers, Oneida, Fourier Phalanxes
Painting
everyday domestic life, nature, rural landscapes
Architecture
glorified Greek columned facades
Literature
transcendentalist + Romantic authors
2nd Great Awakening
religious reform that swept through US
reassertion of traditional Calvinist (puritan) teachings → original sin + predestination
Causes:
growing emphasis on democracy + the individual drew worshippers to services that were more participatory and less formal + hierarchical
rational approaches to religion favored by Deists + Unitarians prompted reaction of more emotional expressions of belief in worship
Market Revolution
increased fear of greed + sin
disruptions & increased mobility led people to look for worship settings outside formal churches in urban area
Baptists & Methodists (South + Western Frontier)
Millennialism
Mormons (Nomads on Western Frontier)
Religious groups provided leadership + organization needed for the voluntary societies of the Antebellum Era
Antebellum Era / Age of Reform
Temperance movement
prisons + asylums
public education
special schools
abolition
Southern White Society
Aristocracy:
South’s small elite of wealthy planters
owned at least 100 slaves & 1000 acres
dominated state legislatures & enacted laws that favored landowners’ economic interests
Farmers:
less than 20 slaves
several hundred acres
produced bulk of cotton crop
worked alongside slaves
lived as modestly as farmers in the North
Poor Whites
75% of white population
owned no slaves
could not afford rich river-bottom farmland controlled by planters → lived in the hills as subsistence farmers (“hillbillies“ and “poor white trash“)
still defended the system, believing they would one day own slaves; still felt superior to black people
1800:
Thomas Jefferson elected in Election/Revolution of 1800; peaceful transfer of power between political parties
Gabriel Prosser organized 1000 other enslaved for uprising but was betrayed + executed before plans could come to fruition
1803:
Marbury v. Madison established the principle of judicial review, affirming the Supreme Court's power to invalidate laws that are deemed unconstitutional.
The Louisiana Purchase doubles the size of the country
1804:
Jefferson Reelected
Federalist Conspiracy: Burr plans to win governorship of New York to unite w/ New England and secede
1807: Embargo Act, which aimed to pressure Britain and France by restricting American trade with both nations, leading to significant economic downturn in the U.S.
1808:
James Madison is elected as the fourth President
Congress prohibits the importation of enslaved people
1811:
New York passes law for businesses to incorporate & raise capital by selling shares of stock → other states soon follow
Non-Intercourse Act: Restricts trade with Britain and France, replacing the Embargo Act of 1807, allowing trade with other nations.
Macon’s Bill #2: This legislation aimed to motivate Britain and France to respect American neutral rights by permitting trade with whichever nation first recognized those rights, further escalating tensions. Napoleon agrees, but France continues seizing American merchant ships
1812: War of 1812 begins
Causes:
Impressment of American sailors by the British navy
Interference with American shipping and trade by both Britain and France
Expanding desire for territorial expansion and the acquisition of Canada
Increased nationalism and pressure from the War Hawks in Congress.
1814:
Hartford Convention: threat of secession from New England states right before war ended; destroyed Federalist party, stamped as unpatriotic
The Treaty of Ghent is signed, officially ending the War of 1812 and restoring pre-war boundaries, but failing to address key issues.
The War’s Legacy:
US gained respect from other nations
US accepts Canada as part of the British Empire
Federalist Party comes to an end nationally & declines even in New England
Talk of secession + nullification in New England sets precedent for South
American Indians abandoned by British & forced to surrender land to white settlement
US factories built during naval blockade → shift towards industrial self sufficiency
War heroes like William Henry Harrison & Andrew Jackson
Intensified nationalism + belief in the future of the West away from Europe
1816:
Election of Monroe
Tariff of 1816: The first protective tariff in American history, aimed at supporting American industry by raising the prices of imported goods.
1817: Rush-Bagot Agreement; disarmament pact that limited naval armament on the Great Lakes & border fortifications
1818:
Treaty of 1818 which improved relations between US + GB
Shared fishing rights off coast of Newfoundland
Joint occupation of Oregon Territory for 10 years
Established northern limit on Louisiana Territory at 49th parallel and resolved border disputes between the United States and Canada.
North holds majority of 105 to 81 in HR, though still equal in Senate at 11:11; Missouri’s bid for statehood alarmed the North because it could tip the political balance in favor of the South
1819: Panic of 1819 occurred when 2nd Bank of US tightened credit in an effort control inflation; Resulted in widespread bank failures, foreclosures, and a recession that affected both urban and rural communities.
1820s:
1st US Rail Road
New England emerges as leading manufacturer
Slums expand in urban life
1820:
Reelection of James Monroe
Missouri Compromise / Clay’s Proposal is enacted
Admit Missouri as a slave state
Admit Maine as a free state
Prohibit slavery in the rest of the Louisiana territory North of latitude 36° 30'.
1822: Denmark Vescy leads a slave revolt in South Carolina, which intensifies fears of slave uprisings across the South; Vescy + 30 conspirators hanged before they could act
1823: President Monroe warns Europeans to stay out of the Western Hemisphere with the Monroe Doctrine, establishing a cornerstone of American foreign policy
1824: Election of 1824 / The Corrupt Bargain
congressional caucus system had broken down
4 candidates ran: John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, & Andrew Jackson
Jackson won electoral + popular vote but didn’t have majority
decision moves to the HR where Henry Clay uses his influence to secure Adam’s victory
Adam’s then appoints Clay as Secretary of State
1826: Protestant ministers founded the American Temperance Society
1828:
Andrew Jackson wins the presidency, marking the beginning of a new era in American politics.
Tariff of Abominations & the Nullification Crisis
1830s:
Revival in political + religious justification for slavery
Lowell Mill systems emerge
emergence of nominating conventions
Protestant denomination found small denominational colleges in new western states
1830:
Indian Removal Act authorized the forced displacement of Native American tribes from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the Mississippi River.
Webster-Hayne Debate, a significant 1830 debate in the U.S. Senate focusing on the nature of the Union and states' rights, highlighting the growing sectional tensions between the North and South.
1831:
A slave revolt led by Nat Turner is crushed, but it scares slave owners and leads to harsher laws and restrictions on enslaved people in the South.
William Lloyd Garrison begins publication of The Liberator
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ruled that the Cherokee nation had no right to sue in American courts
1832:
Calhoun’s South Carolina holds special convention for nullification of 1828 + new 1832 Tariff; Jackson threatens military force
The Veto + the Bank War: Jackson's veto of the recharter of the Second Bank of the United States in 1832 sparked widespread controversy and marked the beginning of his conflict known as the Bank War, where he sought to dismantle the bank's influence by withdrawing federal funds.
1833:
Worcester v. Georgia: Supreme Court rules against Georgia, saying Georgia can’t enforce its laws in Cherokee territory, but Jackson refuses to enforce the ruling
Garrison + abolitionists found the American Anti-Slavery Society
1836
Specie Circular issued by President Jackson requires payment for government land in gold or silver, contributing to economic instability and financial panic.
Martin Van Buren elected as eighth president of the United States, known for his opposition to the annexation of Texas and facing financial crises during his term.
Bureau of Indian Affairs created
Panic of 1837: caused by Jackson’s opposition to rechartering the Bank of US; Whigs blamed Democrats for Laissez-faire economics
1838: The Trail of Tears occurs, forcing the Cherokee Nation and other tribes to relocate from their ancestral lands in the Southeast to designated Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma.
1840: William Henry Harrison defeats Van Buren in the presidential election, marking the first victory for the Whig Party.
1841: VP John Tyler finishes Harrison’s term
1842: Commonwealth v Hunt legally recognizes labor unions
1844: James K. Polk is elected president, advocating for the expansionist policies that lead to the annexation of Texas and the escalation of tensions with Mexico.
1847: Frederick Douglass starts running anti-slavery journal The North Star
1848:
By 1848, the US controlled territory all the way to the Pacific Ocean
advocates of women’s rights gather in Seneca Falls, New York, for the first Women’s Rights Convention, marking a pivotal moment in the fight for gender equality and suffrage.
1849: Zachary Taylor elected president
1850s:
establishment of special schools for the blind + deaf
the South now produces 50% of the nation’s raw materials and cotton = 2/3 of all exports
vast majority of Native Americans living west of the Mississippi River
1860s: 500,000 free African Americans throughout the US
250,000 in the North constituted 1% of northerners but 50% of all free blacks in the nation
250,000 that remained in the South
Period 5: 1844-1877
Themes
Manifest Destiny: The belief that the expansion of the United States across the American continents was both justified and inevitable, leading to significant territorial acquisitions and conflicts.
Boundary Dispute in Maine:
ill-defined boundary between Maine & Canadian province of New Brunswick
Conflict between rival groups of lumber workers erupted into open fighting known as the Aroostook War (1838-1839)
settled by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842, which established a more clearly defined border between the United States and Canada.
Boundary Dispute in Oregon:
Oregon territory originally stretched as far as the Alaskan border
claimed by Spain, Russia, Great Britain, & US
Spain gave up claims in Adams-Onis Treaty (1819)
British claims to profitable fur trade w/ Native Americans of Pacific Northwest
US based claims on previous explorations/expeditions + fur trading post in Astoria, Oregon
Oregon Fever: the mass migration of settlers and pioneers to the Oregon Territory during the 1840s, fueled by the promise of fertile land and economic opportunity.
1846: Oregon Treaty → Established the boundary between the U.S. and British North America at the 49th parallel
viewed by Northerners as sellout to the South b/c it removed British Columbia as a source of potential free states
war had already broken out in Mexico (costly)
Wartime Advantages & Disadvantages
North:
Military:
had to conquer an area as large as western Europe
population of 22 million
800,000 Immigrants
emancipation of 180,000 African Americans
loyal US Navy
commanded rivers + territorial waters
Economic:
dominated nation’s economy
85% of factories
70% of railroads
65% of farmland
skill of merchants = valuable logistical support of military operations
Political: Strong central gov. capable of mobilizing resources + support
South:
Military:
only had to fight defensively
had to move troops + supplies shorter distances
long indented coastline (difficult to blockade)
experienced military leaders
high troop morale
smaller population
Economic:
hoped European demand for cotton would bring recognition + financial aid
had to rely on outside help
Political:
states’ rights = liability to organization and control
Union Strategy: 3 part plan devised by Gen. Winfield Scott
US navy to blockade Southern ports, cutting off essential supplies (Anaconda Plan)
Take control of Mississippi, dividing Confederacy in two
Raise + train army of 500,000 to conquer Richmond, securing the Confederate capital
Cotton Diplomacy:
expected cotton to induce Great Britain or France to give aid
British elite had vested interest in ending the American democratic experiment
*** critical that the Union prevents the South from gaining desperately needed foreign support
British allowed Confederates to purchase British warships
Failure: Europe quickly obtained cotton from other sources (Egypt + India)
Success & Failures of Reconstruction:
Accomplishments:
Liberalized state constitutions in the South
universal male suffrage
property rights for women
debt relief
modern penal codes
Internal improvements
railroads
roads
bridges
Institutions
hospitals
asylums
homes for the disabled
public schools
Overhauled tax system + sold bonds
Failures:
depicted as utterly wasteful + corrupt
kickbacks + bribes
general decline in ethics in government
*** Context ***
1823: Mexico hoped to attract settlers to farm the sparsely populated northern frontier (Texas); Stephen Austin recruited 300 Americans into Texas, beginning steady migration of Americans
1829: Mexico outlaws slavery & required immigrants to convert to Roman Catholicism
Settlers refuse
closed Texas to additional Americans (Americans still stream in in 1000s)
1834: General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana made himself dictator of Mexico and attempted to enforce new rule in Texas
1836:
American settlers in Texas led by Sam Houston revolted + declared Texas an independent republic
made slavery legal again
Battle of the Alamo: Mexican army led by Santa Ana captured the town of Goliad & attacked the Alamo in San Antonio, killing all US defenders
Battle of San Jacinto River: army under Sam Houston caught Mexicans by surprise & captured General Santa Ana
under threat of death, signed treaty recognizing Texas independence
rejected by Mexican legislature
Houston, as first president of Republic of Texas, applied for annexation but is denied under Jackson + Van Buren administrations
northern political opposition to the expansion of slavery
threat of costly war w/ Mexico
1841:
William Henry Harrison takes office, dies later that year
Vice President John Tyler takes office
a southern Whig willing to work towards annexation
Senate rejected treaty of annexation of 1844
*** Context ***
1844:
Election of 1844:
Annexing Texas + expansion of slavery splits democratic party
North: nominates Martin Van Buren
South: nominates John C. Calhoun
finally nominated James K Polk (protege of Andrew Jackson)
Whigs nominate Henry Clay
Clay was indecisive on Texas annexation, alienating New York voters → emergence of anti-Slavery Liberty Party
Whig’s loss of NY provides decisive victory for Polk; Democrats interpret victory as a mandate to ad Texas to the Union
outgoing president John Tyler took election of Polk as signal to push annexation through Congress, leaving Polk w/ consequences of Mexico’s reaction
US annexes Texas after a contentious debate over its admission to the Union, leading to tensions with Mexico and eventually the outbreak of the Mexican-American War.
1845: Polk dispatches John Slidell as special convoy to gov. in Mexico City w/ goals of
convincing Mexico to sell California + New Mexico territories
Settle disputed Mexico-Texas border
*** fails on both counts; Mexico claims border in on Nueces River vs US claims border is on Rio Grande
1846:
Polk orders Gen. Zachary Taylor to move army toward Rio Grande
April 24: Mexico army crosses Rio Grande and kills 11
Polk uses incident to justify war message to Congress
opposed by Northern Whigs
approved by majority in both houses
Mexican-American War begins
Wilmot Proviso: Pennsylvania Congressman David Wilmot proposes forbidding slavery in new territory from Mexico
supported by those who wanted to preserve land for white settlers w/o having to compete w/ enslaved labor
passed twice in HR (Northern majority) but failed in Senate (Southern majority)
1848:
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signed, officially ending the Mexican-American War
Mexico recognizes the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas
US takes possession of provinces of California + New Mexico; US paid $15 million
acquisition of vast western lands renews sectional debate over extension of slavery
North viewed war as Southern plot
South saw Wilmot Proviso as first in series of escalation
Election of 1848:
Democrats: Senator Cass (platform pledged to popular sovereignty)
Whigs: Gen. Zachary Taylor (took no position on slavery)
Free-Soil Party: Martin Van Buren (conscience Whigs + anti-Slavery Democrats; ridiculed as “barn burners“ because defection threatened Democratic party)
Zachary Taylor wins the presidency
1849: California Gold Rush
1850:
Zachary Taylor dies and VP Millard Fillmore takes office
The Compromise of 1850 (Henry Clay’s proposal)
Admit California as a free state
Divide remainder of Mexican Cession into two territories (Utah + New Mexico) and allow settlers to decide status on slavery by popular sovereignty
Give land in dispute between Texas and New Mexico to new territories in return for federal gov. assuming Texas’ debt of $10 million
Ban slave trade in DC but permit owning
Adopt new Fugitive Slave Law and enforce it rigorously
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty: An agreement between the United States and Great Britain, signed in 1850, aimed at both nations jointly constructing a canal through Central America, emphasizing neutrality in the region.
1852:
publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin ignites criticism of slavery
Election of 1852: Democrat Franklin Pierce, a compromise candidate as a northerner that supported the fugitive slave law, won all but four states
1854:
The Kansas-Nebraska Act is enacted, allowing new territories to decide for themselves whether they would allow slavery, repealing the Missouri Compromise that had lessened regional tensions for more than 3 decades; led to violent clashes in Kansas known as "Bleeding Kansas."
Republican party formed in response; composed of free-soilers + anti-Slavery Dems. and Whigs; initial purpose was to end the spread of slavery, not to abolish it
Ostend Manifesto: A confidential document that outlined the U.S. rationale for acquiring Cuba from Spain, suggesting that if Spain refused to sell, the U.S. should use force to take it; this further inflamed sectional tensions over slavery and imperialism.
Gadsden Purchase: A 1854 agreement in which the United States acquired land from Mexico (present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico) to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad, further exacerbating tensions between the North and South regarding the expansion of slavery into new territories.
1856:
Caning of Senator Sumner / The Sumner-Brooks Incident
Election of 1856: James Buchanan, the Democratic candidate, won the presidency against John C. Frémont of the Republican Party
John Brown massacred 5 farmers in Kansas
1857:
Panic of 1857
sharp increase in prices for midwestern agriculture & sharp increase in unemployment in Northern cities
South was largely unaffected as cotton prices remained high; believed that plantation economy was superior and continued Union w/ Northern economy was not necessary
The Dred Scott decision opens all territories to slavery, affirming that African Americans were not considered citizens and had no rights to sue in federal court.
publication of Impending Crisis of the South attacked slavery from an economic angle → condemned + banned in the South
Lecompton Constitution: pro-slavery constitution for Kansas, which was heavily contested by anti-slavery factions, leading to significant conflict known as "Bleeding Kansas" as both sides rushed to settle the territory and influence the outcome; was rejected by Congress
1858: Lincoln-Douglas Debates
1859: John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry attempts to initiate an armed slave revolt, culminating in his capture and execution.
1860:
Lincoln is elected president, frightening slaveowners; breakup of the Democratic party; New political reality = free states had enough electoral votes to elect a president w/o single electoral vote from the South
Crittenden Compromise: last ditch effort before Lincoln takes office to prevent secession
1860-1861: Secession of the deep South
1861:
Morrill Tariff Act: raised tariffs to increase revenue + protect American manufacturers; initiated Republican program of high protective tariffs to help industrialists
Civil War officially erupts
Soldiers were volunteers
after Fort Sumter, Upper South secedes
pro-Union slave states become border states between North & South
Confiscation Acts (1861-1862): gave Union power to seize enemy property, including enslaved people; freed anyone that was enslaved by an individual in rebellion (failed to include border states)
1862:
Homestead Act
Morrill Land Grant Act
Pacific Rail Way Act
1863:
Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring that all slaves in Confederate-held territory are to be set free, which shifts the war's purpose toward ending slavery.
applied only to Confederate states (only 1% of enslaved people)
slavery continued in border states
Union’s March 1863 Conscription Act is introduced, requiring men ages 20 to 45 to register for military service, leading to widespread protests and riots in several Northern cities.
November 19: Gettysburg Address; Lincoln preaches message of more complete + democracy
Congress creates first banking system since Andrew Jackson
Proclamation of Amnesty & Reconstruction:
full pardons granted to Confederates who
took oath of allegiance to the Union + US Constitution
accepted emancipation of slaves
state gov. could be reestablished once 10% of population took oath
must rewrite constitution to abolish slavery
1864:
Sherman’s March to the Sea (deliberate destruction; first example of total warfare)
Election of 1864: President Abraham Lincoln is re-elected, defeating Democratic candidate George B. McClellan
Wade-Davis Bill:
Congress thought 10% would allow secessionists to dominate state governments
raised requirement to 50% & permitted only non-Confederates to vote on new state Constitution
pocket-vetoed by Lincoln
1865-1877: Reconstruction
1865:
Confederates surrender at Appomattox Court House, effectively bringing the Civil War to a close and setting the stage for Reconstruction.
Ratification of the 13th Amendment officially abolishes slavery
March: Freedmen’s Bureau is established to assist freed slaves in their transition to freedom and provide them with education, healthcare, and employment opportunities.
April 14: Lincoln is assassinated; VP Andrew Johnson takes office (a white supremacist that clashed w/ anti-slavery Congress)
vetoed 29 bills in 1 term
animosity towards Southern Aristocrats
disenfranchised all Confederate leaders + Confederates w/ more than $20,000 in taxable property
granted individual pardons as escape clause for the wealthy
1866:
Spring: angry response of Congress to Johnson’s policies = 2nd round of Reconstruction;
dominated by Congress
harsher on Southern whites
more protective of freed African Americans
Radical Republicans emerge, fearing increased representation in the South as 3/5 compromise no longer applied
Civil Rights Act of 1866:
nullifies Dred-Scot Case
attempted to provide legal shield against South’s Black Codes
feared it could be repealed if Democrats regained control of Congress; needed a more permanent solution . . .
Ratification of the 14th Amendment extends citizenship to everyone born in the United States
Report of the Joint Committee: declared that the reorganized Confederate states were not entitled to representation in Congress
Election of 1866: Johnson won
1867:
Reconstruction Act of 1867: Divided the South into five military districts under Union occupation; increased requirements for readmission into the Union
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
fell 1 vote short from 2/3 needed for conviction
1868: Election of 1868: Republican Gen. Ulysses S. Grant takes office
1869:
Ratification of the 15th Amendment bands racial discrimination in voting
Suffragettes objected that 14th + 15th amendments did not extend voting rights to women
1870s:
rise of spoilsmen
postwar years notorious for corrupt schemes designed by business bosses + political bosses at the expense of the public
Credit Mobilier
Whiskey Ring
William “Boss“ Tweed
1872: Election of 1872: Grant re-elected (waving the bloody flag)
1873: Panic of 1873: economic disaster caused by overspeculation by financers + overbuilding by industry; Grant adopted ideas of Eastern bankers + creditors, setting new trend for Republican party
1875: Civil Rights Act of 1875:Prohibits racial discrimination in public accommodations, although its effectiveness was limited by subsequent Supreme Court decisions (poorly enforced)
Period 6: 1865- 1898
Themes:
The Cattle Frontier
previously, cattle was raised + rounded up small scale in Texas by Mexicans
with the expansion of the railroads and an increase in demand for beef in the East, large-scale cattle ranching emerged, leading to the establishment of cattle drives that transported herds to markets
Declined in 1880s:
overgrazing destroyed grass
winter blizzard + drought of 1885-1886 killed 90% of cattle
arrival of homesteaders → barbed fencing cut off formerly open range and increased disputes over land + resources.
Wealthy cattle owners developed huge ranches & raised new breeds of cattle that produced more tender beef
American eating habits transitioned from pork to beef
Changes in Agriculture
increasingly commercialized
Northern + Western farmers concentrated on single cash crops (national + international markets)
Consumers: farmers began to procure food from town stores manufactured goods from mail-order catalogues
Producers: became dependent on large + expensive machinery (steam engines, seeders, reaper-thresher combines)
large farms run like factories
small / marginal farms could not compete & were driven out of business
The Grange Movement
previously, a long history of individualism restrained collective action
1868: organized by Oliver H. Kelley
initially a social + educational organization for farmers and their families
within 5 years, it expanded in every state & became active in economics + politics to defend members against
middlemen
trusts
railroads
established cooperatives to cut out middlemen
lobbied state legislatures to regulate rates charged by railroads + elevators
The Farmers Alliance
taught about scientific farming methods
always had the goal of economic & political action and had serious potential for creating an independent national political party
by 1890: ~ 1 million farmers were actively participating in the movement
in the South both poor white + black farmers had membership
The Ocala Platform
national organization of farmers met in Ocala, Florida where they met to address the problems of rural America
attacked both major parties as subservient to Wall Street bankers / big businesses
Ocala delegates enacted the Ocala Platform that called for significant reforms
Turner’s Frontier Thesis
settling frontier = evolutionary of building American civilization
argued 300 years of frontier experience shaped American culture, promoting independence, individualism, inventiveness, practicality, and democracy
saw frontier as a safety valve for releasing discontent in American society → promise of a fresh start
1890s: migration transitions from East-to-West to Rural-to-Urban as industrialization gains momentum → dominance of rural America declined
Assimilationists
Best selling book “A Century of Dishonor” (1881) by Helen Hunt Jackson chronicled injustices done to American Indians
created empathy, however also generated support for ending American Indian culture through assimilation
Reformers advocated for formal education, job training, and conversion to Christianity
set up residential schools for “civilization” where American Indian children were taken from their families to learn English and adopt Western cultural practices
The New South
Henry Grady: of Atlanta Constitution who spread the gospel of the “New South” w/ editorials that argued for economic diversity and laissez-faire capitalism
Factor that caused growth:
tax exemptions for investors & promise of low wage labor
growth of cities & textile industry
improved & standardized railroads allowed south to integrate into national rail network
Factors that slowed growth:
Northern financing dominated southern economy
Northern investors controlled ¾ of southern railroads + controlled steel industry
large share of profits went to northern banks rather than recirculating
failure to expand public education
few southerners had skills necessary for industrial development
racial segregation persisted
Tenant Farmers & Share Cropping
South remained largely agricultural & poorest part of the nation
By 1900, ½ of White and ¾ Black farmers were either tenant farmers (renting the land) or sharecroppers (paid w/ share of crops)
Southern banks had little money to lend to farmers
forced farmers to borrow supplies from merchants w/ mortgage of crops to be paid at harvest
kept farmers as virtual serfs tied to the land by debt
replaced enslaved labor
cycle of dependency and poverty
Responses to Segregation:
Ida B. Wells
editor of Memphis Free Speak, a black newspaper
campaigned against lynching & Jim Crow Laws
forced to continue work in the north due to death threats and the destruction of her printing press
Booker T. Washington
born enslaved; graduated from Hampton Institute in Virginia
established industrial and agricultural school for African Americans in Tuskegee, Alabama
taught skilled trades & preached virtues of hard work, moderation, and self-help
believed economics would be more empowering than politics
organized the National Negro Business League
W. E. B. Du Bois:
responded to Washington w/ criticism
demanded end to segregation and granting of equal civil rights to all Americans
immediate political change
Industrial Empires:
Marketing Consumer Goods: Increased output of factories + new consumer products = selling of merchandise to a large public
large departments stores
nation wide chain stores
large mail order companies via railroad
packaged food changed eating habits of Americans w/ mass produced meat and vegetables
advertising = emergence of consumer economy AND culture
Conservative Economic Theories:
Laissez-faire Capitalism: An economic theory proposed by Adam Smith in 1776 advocating minimal government intervention in the markets, allowing supply and demand to regulate prices and production without restrictions; rise of monopolies in 1880s undercut the very competition needed for natural regulation; Laissez-faire invoked to ward off all potential regulation
Social Darwinism: adoption of Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection to justify social and economic inequalities, suggesting that wealth and success were indicators of superiority, while poverty was a sign of failure; believed helping the poor was misguided because it interfered w/ the laws of nature
Protestant Work Ethic: found by many Americans to be more convincing than Social Darwinism; material success was a sign of god’s favor and a just reward for hard work; this belief highlighted the importance of discipline and frugality, promoting the idea that individual success was linked to personal morality and devotion.
Stockholder Corporations: created because railroads required so much investment that they needed to develop complex structures in finance, business management, and the regulation of competition
Vanderbilt: used millions earned from steamboat business to merge local railroads into the New York Central Railroad (1867) from NYC to Chicago, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and the Pennsylvania Railroad
Carnegie: utilized vertical integration to dominate the steel industry, reducing costs and increasing production, which positioned him as one of the leading figures of the Industrial Revolution in America; controlled > 3/5 of the nation’s steel industry
Rockefeller: founded the Standard Oil Company in 1870, which revolutionized the petroleum industry and defined the structure of modern philanthropy; controlled over 90% of U.S. refineries and pipelines by the 1880s.
Horizontal Integration: when one company takes control of all its former competitors in a specific industry
Vertical Integration: when one company takes control of all stages of making a product
Criticism of Corporations: monopolies subverted competition in open & free markets
slowed innovation
developed excessive political influence
overcharged consumers
threatened the public interest
The Concentration of Wealth:
1890s: richest 10% of US population controlled 90% of the nation’s wealth
industrialization created new class of millionaires
ostentatious mansions
sailing enormous yachts
throwing lavish parties
rivaled villas of European royalty
many Americans ignored the widening gap
“Self Made Men”: individuals who rose to prominence through their own efforts and ingenuity, often achieving wealth and status despite humble beginnings; however, social mobility like Carnegie was extremely rare
Industrial Warfare:
violent labor conflicts & fear that it could escalate to open warfare
surplus of low-cost labor = management holds most power
Bosses used:
Lockouts
Blacklists
yellow-dog contracts
private guards & state militia
court injunctions
Anti-Immigration Sentiment:
Labor Unions w/ economic concerns re: low wages + competition
Employers who benefited from additional competition but feared migrants would advocate for radical reforms; blamed strikes + labor movement on “foreign agitators”
Nativists who feared “weakening” culture of Anglo-majority; openly prejudiced against Roman Catholics
Social Darwinists who believed Southern + Eastern Europeans were biologically inferior
Machine Politics: A system where political leaders use corrupt practices to maintain control over their parties and gain votes, often involving patronage and favoritism.
Tammany Hall
Settlement Houses
The Expanding Middle Class:
white-collar & salaried work
The Gospel of Wealth
growth of suburbs
growth of leisure time; commuter streetcar + Railroad companies promoted weekend + holiday recreation to keep cars constantly moving
Magazines
Theater
Circuses
Opera houses
Jazz, Ragtime, and Blues
baseball, football, and basketball
Gilded Age:
Reform: somewhat limited, but laid groundwork for more successful Progressive movement
books of social criticism
Religious groups began advocating for social change, emphasizing moral responsibility and community engagement as catalysts for reform
The Social Gospel
Social workers like Jane Addams of Hull House
suffrage movement
temperance movement
critics & artists informed the expanding middle class of alternative visions for the economy / society
Government Involvement: “do-little” government perpetuated by:
Laissez-faire economics
Social Darwinism
fed gov. = unwilling to regulate, but willing to subsidize → federal land grants for railroads and other industries
hasty + poor construction
corruption in all levels of gov.
insiders used construction companies to bribe gov. officials
Politics of stalemate and complacency began to lose hold on voters by late 1880s. Growing protests over government corruption, money issues, tariffs, railroads, and monopolistic trusts led to politicians making small corrective steps, but it would take a third party (Populists) and a major depression in 1893 to incite action.
Politics:
Popular politics:
election campaigns had brass bands, flags, campaign buttons, picnics, free beer, and crowd-pleasing theatrics
80% of eligible voters were voting
high turnout & strong party identity / loyalty, often connected to the regional, religious, and ethnic ties of voters
Party Patronage: neither party had active legislative agenda; game of winning elections, holding office, and providing government jobs to party faithful’s
Republicans:
North: kept memory of Civil War alive, waving the “bloody shirt” around
association w/ Lincoln and wounded veterans
maintained support of reformers & African Americans
core of strength came from business + middle class, Anglo-Saxon Protestants (Temperance & Prohibition)
followed Hamilton tradition & Whig past → pro-business economic program of high protective tariffs
Democrats:
support from “Solid South” (former Confederacy)
North: strength from big city political machines & immigrant voters
often Catholics, Lutherans, & Jews who objected to prohibition crusades
followed Jeffersonian tradition of state rights & limited federal government
The Rise of Populists:
The Alliance Movement provided foundation for the People’s / Populist Party
Delegates met in Omaha, Nebraska to draft platform:
direct popular election of US senators
use of initiatives & referendums → allowed citizens to vote directly on laws
unlimited coinage of silver
graduated income tax
gov. ownership of railroads, telegraphs, and telephone systems
1830s: Reservation Policy begins
Late 1800s: Indian Wars
increased settlement led to brutal violence between US troops & plains Indians
US responsible for multiple massacres
1849: California Gold Rush
initially individual prospectors; then attracted companies and wealthy investors from around the world
Boom towns created along rich strikes → became a ghost town w/ in a few years when gold / silver ran out
1859: Comstock Lode discovered
Led to a huge influx of miners and settlers to Nevada, prompting its admission to the Union
Before 1860: Settlement of the “Last West” seemed unpromising
“The Great American Desert” passed over for Oregon + California
minimal trees + rainfall
Winter blizzards & hot, dry summers
1862: The Homestead Act
Encouraged farming the Great Plains by offering 160 acres of land for any families willing to cultivate it for 5 years → invited 100s of 1000s between
500,000 took advantage of the act
2,500,000 purchased land because the most valuable land was in possession of railroad companies & speculators
Problems:
extremes of hot + cold weather
plagues of grasshoppers
lonesome life
scarcity of water + wood
160 acres was not sufficient for farming
falling crop prices
cost of new machinery
failure of 2/3 farms by 1900
W. Kansas lost ½ population from 1888-1892
Solutions:
invention of barbed wire
adoption of dry farming + deep plowing techniques
hardy Russian strains of wheat impervious to extreme weather
gov. infrastructure programs (dams + irrigation) reshaped environment of the West
1865-1898: The Gilded Age
1866:
During Sioux War, Sioux fighters wiped out army column under Captain William Fetterman
another round of treaties attempted to isolate plains Indians on smaller reservations w/ promise of federal reinforcements
gold minors refused to respect reservation boundaries
minor chiefs + younger warriors not involved in drafting of treaties denounced treaties and tried to return to ancestral lands
the National Labor Union forms
1868: The Grange Movement is founded
1869:
Workers complete the first transcontinental railroad
Knights of Labor began in secret
1870s:
Jim Crow Laws adopted in Southern states
John D. Rockefeller founds Standard Oil
1873: The Panic of 1873 leads to a severe economic depression, impacting banks and businesses across the nation; the National Labor Union loses support
1874: the Greenback Party becomes active in response to Congress w/drawing all greenbacks from circulation; advocated for the use of fiat money to increase the money supply and alleviate the economic hardships faced by working-class citizens.
1876:
Thomas Edison opens his Menlo Park Laboratory
Custer is defeated at the Battle of Little Big Horn, marking a significant early victory for the Native American tribes against U.S. government forces.
1877:
Reconstruction officially ends
North w/drew protection of African Americans & left South to address social + economic issues
Democratic Redeemers come to power: support from business community + white supremacists
introduces segregation of public facilities
race = rallying cry that deflects from the economic concerns of the poor
Munn v. Illinois upheld right of states to regulate businesses of a public nature, such as railroads; passed in response to Grange Movement
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
1879: NYC passes law requiring each bedroom of tenements to have a window, leading to overcrowded and filthy dumbbell tenements
1880s:
Decline of the long drive
“Old” Immigrants
Northern + Western Europe: British Isles, Germany, Scandinavia
mostly Protestant and English speaking
high literacy levels occupational skills
However: Irish + German Catholics still faced significant discrimination
1881:
Knights of Labor go public w/ reforms of
worker cooperatives
abolishing child labor
abolishing trusts + monopolies
settling labor disputes via arbitration rather than strikes
The Pendleton Act established a merit-based system for federal employment to reduce corruption and ensure qualified public officials; removed gov. jobs from control of party patronage
1882: Congress passes the Chinese Exclusion Act, limiting immigration from China and reflecting growing nativist sentiments in the U.S.
1883:
Southern Pacific Railroad connected New Orleans to Los Angeles; Atchison, Topeka, & Santa Fe linked Kansas City + Los Angles; Norther Pacific linked Duluth, Minnesota w/ Seattle
Transcontinental Railroads = failures as businesses
built in areas w/ few costumers
little returning profit
frenzied rush for natural resources damaged environment & exterminated the Buffalo
American Indians paid high human + cultural price
Civil Rights Cases: Court ruled Congress could not ban racial discrimination practiced by private businesses & citizens, including railroads + hotels used by the public
1885: Contract Labor Law of 1885 restricted immigration by prohibiting the importation of foreign workers under contract to labor in the United States, reflecting growing nativist sentiments.
1886:
Statue of Liberty opens
May 4th: workers held public movement in Hay Market Square; police attempt to break up the meeting & a bomb is thrown → killed 7 officers; 8 anarchists tried + 7 sentenced to death;
The Knights of Labor, the most visible union at the time, lost popularity and membership
American Federation of Labor (AFL) is founded as an association of 25 craft unions
1887:
Dawes Severalty Act; Aimed to assimilate or “civilize” Native Americans by allotting them individual plots of land and granting US citizenship to those who stayed on the plot for 25 years → disease and poverty
Interstate Commerce Act establishes the 1st fed. regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), tasked with overseeing railroad rates and ensuring fair practices in interstate transportation.
1889: Oklahoma territory, once reserved for Native Americans, is opened for settlement
1890s - outbreak of WWI:
“New” Immigrants
Southern + Eastern Europe: Italians, Greeks, Croats, Slovaks, Poles, Russians
often poor and illiterate peasants who left autocratic countries
largely Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, or Jewish
crowded in poor ethnic neighborhoods in major cities
1890:
The National Alliance meets in Ocala, Florida, creating The Ocala Platform
The U.S. Census Bureau declares the frontier closed, signaling the end of the era of westward expansion and prompting a shift in American identity.
The Ghost Dance & Wounded Knee
The Sherman Antitrust Act enacted to combat monopolies and promote competition in the marketplace.
1892:
Homestead Strike
The Omaha Platform is drafted
Election of 1892:
Populist Party gains significant traction in the election
However, former president Cleveland wins reelection
1893:
Pullman strike by workers on Pullman railroad cars shuts down the railroads
more than 12 million people attend a World’s Fair in Chicago
The Panic of 1893
1894:
Wilson-Gorman Tariff
provided moderate reduction in tariff rates
included 2% income tax on incomes > $2,000
*** However, w/in a year the Supreme Court declares an income tax unconstitutional
Coxey’s Army
march to Washington by 1000s of unemployed le by Populist Jacob S. Coxey of Ohio
demanded fed. gov. spend $500 million on public works programs to create jobs
Coxey + other leaders arrested for trespassing
Coin’s Financial School
a little book by William H. Harvey presenting lessons in economics
offered easy answers for ending depression
illustrated w/ cartoons
taught millions of discontented Americans that their troubles were caused by conspiracy of rich bankers & that prosperity would return when gov. coined silver in unlimited quantities
1896:
Plessy v. Ferguson decision upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine
Election of 196
Democrats divided between “Gold Bugs” loyal to Cleveland and the pro-silver Democrats in need of a leader
At national dem. convention in Chicago, Bryant gives famous “cross of gold” speech and was instantly nominated as democratic candidate for the presidency, advocating for the free coinage of silver and championing the interests of rural America
Republican William McKinley elected as the 25th President of the United States, promoting a pro-business platform and expansionist policies.
Gold discovered in Alaska increases money supply under gold standard; Populist party declines
Urban dominance: clear victory for big businesses, urban centers, conservative economics, and middle class values
end of Jeffersonian ideals & rural dominance of American politics
By 1900:
The West
Buffalo completely wiped out
abundant homesteads + ranches
steel rails
West modernized by new towns
10 new western states
only Arizona, New Mexico, & Oklahoma remained as territories
Labor
2/3 of all employed American worked for wages 10 hours a day, six days a week
wages determined by supply + demand; barely above levels of subsistence
large supply of immigrants competing for jobs
prevalence of child labor
1904: 99% decline in Black voters since 1896
literacy tests
poll taxes
white-only political primaries
grandfather clauses
1920: first time more Americans lived in urban areas than rural
1924: recognition that forced assimilation of Native Americans had failed; fed. gov. granted US citizenship regardless of Dawes Act
Period 7: 1890-1945
Themes:
Expansion After the Civil War:
Alaska:
for decades, Russia + GB both claimed vast territory of Alaska
Russia assumed control through small seal-hunting colony, but it soon became an economic burden due to threat of takeover
1867: US buys Alaska for $7.2 million (Russia support during Civil War)
was ignored for many years as “Seward’s folly” or “Seward’s Ice Box”
Hawaii:
Mid-1800s: American missionaries + entrepreneurs settled in Hawaii
later, US commission explored use of Pearl Harbor
1870: Ulysses S. Grant sought control of Pearl Harbor + new trade treaties w/ the native kingdom
1875: Hawaiians agreed to treaty giving US exclusive rights to Hawaiian sugar
1893: American settlers aided in overthrowing of Hawaiian monarch Queen Liliʻuokalani and petitioned for annexation by US (if Hawaii became part of US, Hawaiian sugar would not be subject to high US tariffs)
Progressives:
Urban middle + professional class
The Social Gospel
politicians like Theodore Roosevelt
Scientific Management
Muckrakers
created direct primaries + elections of senators
Initiative: voters could compel legislatures to consider a bill
Referendum: allowed vote on bills printed on ballots
Recall: allowed voters to remove corrupt or unsatisfactory politicians by majority vote before full term had been served
nationalized public utilities
temperance + prohibition
Social welfare
Child & Women labor (Triangle shirtwaist factory fire)
Roosevelt’s “Square Deal” & trust-busting
Railroad regulation + consumer protection
Conservation movement
rise of the Socialist party
NAWSA & militant suffragists
The Era of New Imperialism:
Support: growing US industries, increasing fear of social turmoil (labor conflicts), Darwinism, religions, & popular press
Opposition: self-determination, feared addition of non-whites to the population, supported tradition of isolationism, opposed expense of imperialism
Underlying Causes of Depression:
income distribution
stock market speculation
credit
overproduction
weak farm economy
government policies
global economic problems
Interwar Foreign Policy (1920s-1930s):
widespread disillusionment w/ WWI, Europe’s post-war problems, & communism in USSR
feared being pulled into another European conflict
Congress refused to join League of Nations, pursues isolationism, and unilateralism
1850: Southern expansionists already seeking Cuba
1868-1878: Cuban nationalists had fought but failed to overthrow Spanish rule
1890s:
large American investments in Cuban sugar, Spanish misrule, and Monroe Doctrine
American public opinion swept by growing wave of jingoism (intense nationalism calling for aggressive foreign policy)
1890: Navy captain Alfred Thayer Mahan’s “The Influence of Sea Power Upon History”
1895: Cuban nationalists renew struggle for independence, sabotaging Cuban plantations; Spain sends General Valeriana Weyler + 100,000 troops (concentration camps, starvation, and disease)
1898:
Spanish-American War
Yellow Journalism
De Lome Letter
Sinking of the USS Maine
The Teller Amendment: Congress authorizes the war w/ additional amendment declaring the US had no intention of political control of Cuba and that, once peace is restored, the Cuban people would control their own government
Roosevelt commands navy in the Philippines
volunteer force lands in Cuba, US navy destroys Spanish fleet at Santiago Bay
outbreak of war in Philippines gave Congress + McKinley pretext to complete annexation of Hawaii
Treaty of Peace
recognition of Cuban independence
US acquisition of Puerto Rico + Guam
US control of Philippines in exchange for $20 million payment to Spain (many opposed taking Philippines as a colony)
1899: Secretary of State John Hay proposes diplomatic Open Door Policy
1900:
Election of 1900:
Republicans renominate McKinley w/ Roosevelt as VP
Democrats nominate William Jennings Bryan w/ platform of free silver + anti-imperialism; However, most Americans had accepted recently enacted Gold Standard and acquisition of new territory → felt the economy was recovering
McKinley / Roosevelt take office
Boxer Rebellion: Secret society of Chinese nationalists attacked foreign settlements and murdered dozens of Christian missionaries; US troops joined international forces that marched in Peking → quickly crushed rebellion & forced huge indemnity on China
Hay’s Second Round of Notes: feared expeditionary force in China might attempt occupation
Preserve China’s territorial integrity
Safeguard “equal & important” trade
1901:
US makes w/ drawl of troops from Cuba conditional upon Cuba’s acceptance of the Platt Amendment, making Cuba a US protectorate
Never sign a treaty w/ a foreign power that impairs its independence
Permit US to intervene in affairs (“maintain law + order”)
allow US to maintain naval bases
McKinley fatally shot by anarchist; Replaced by Roosevelt who implemented aggressive “big stick” foreign policy; criticized for breaking tradition of non-entanglement
US empire now stretched from Caribbean to Pacific → canal through Central America = strategic necessity; Created Hay-Pauncefote treaty to cancel out 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
Columbia refuses to agree to US terms → Roosevelt orchestrated revolt for Panama’s independence in 1903
1903: New gov. of Panama had to sign Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty granting US all rights over canal zone
1904:
Roosevelt Corollary added to the Monroe Doctrine
rather than let Europeans interfere in Latin America, Roosevelt declared US would intervene whenever necessary
sent gunboats
would occupy major ports
poor US relations w/ entirety of Latin America
1904-1905: Russo-Japanese War
1904-1914: building of the Panama Canal; costs 100s of lives and made Latin America resentful
1907:
1907-1908: Roosevelt’s Great White Fleet
“Gentlemen’s Agreement”
1908: Root–Takahira Agreement between US + Japan; both nations pledged mutual respect for the other’s Pacific possessions & support open-door policy in China
1909: William Taft succeeds Roosevelt
Dollar Diplomacy: foreign policy that was mildly expansionist but depended more on investor’s dollars than navy’s battleships; promoting US trade abroad
1913:
Wilson takes office
Moral Diplomacy: Wilson + Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan took steps to correct wrongful policies of the past
limited success → Wilson’s commitment to anti-colonialism had blind spot for Central American + Caribbean
Bryan negotiated 30 conciliation treaties in which nations pledged to
submit disputes to international commissions
observe 1 year cooling off period before taking military action
General Victoriano Huerta became dictator of Mexico after having the democratically elected president killed
Underwood Tariff → substantially lowered tariffs for first time in > 50 years
1914:
WWI starts in Europe
Wilson persuades Congress to repeal US ships’ exception from Canal toll charged to other nations → angered nationalists but pleased Britain
to aid revolutionaries fighting Huerta, Wilson implements arms embargo against Mexico gov. + sent fleet to blockade Vera Cruz
Tampico Incident: US sailors went ashore in Mexico and were arrested;
were soon released but not formal apology;
Wilson responds w/ occupation of Vera Cruz
Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (ABC Powers) mediate the dispute & war is averted
Huerta fell from power and is replaced by Venustiano Carranza
almost immediately challenged by rebels loyal to Pancho Villa (a different revolutionary), leading raids across the US-Mexican border
Federal Reserve Act created national banking system of 12 district banks supervised by Fed. Reserve Board
Clayton Antitrust Act → strengthened Sherman’s Antitrust Act
Federal Trade Commission created
1915:
Britain declares naval blockade against Germany, Germany threatens use of new submarines → “war zone” = waters near British Isles; sunk on sight
German torpedoes drowned The Lusitania, a British passenger ship, killing 128 Americans → 1st major challenge to US neutrality
Wilson sends Germany aggressive diplomatic war message warning of “strict accountability” → SOS Bryan resigns b/c message was too warlike
German submarine attacked The Arabic, 2 Americans dead
Germany pledges no unarmed passenger ships would be sunk w/o warning
1916:
Wilson won passage of Jones Act:
granted Philippines full territorial status
guaranteed bill of rights + universal male suffrage
promised independence as soon as stable gov. established (postponed until after WWII)
German torpedo struck Sussex
Wilson threatened to cut off US diplomatic relations (preparation for war)
Germany replies w/ Sussex Pledge
Election of 1916:
Wilson’s chance for reelection did not seem strong after Roosevelt declined Progressive Party’s nomination & joined republicans (destroyed the Progressive Party & ended split in Republican votes that had won him the previous election)
Democrats adopted slogan “He Kept Us Out of War”
Wilson won extremely close election
1917:
Act of Congress of 1917 granted US citizenship to all Puerto Ricans
Wilson made speech to Senate declaring US commitment to “peace w/o victory”
January: sudden change in German military strategy, resuming unrestricted submarine warfare → recognized risk of US entry into the war but believed that by cutting off Ally supplies, they could win the war before the US could react
Few days later: Wilson cuts off diplomatic ties
Zimmerman Telegram: US newspapers reveal secret offer from Germany to Mexico offering recovery of lost territories in exchange for allyship → Mexico never accepted but it ignited nationalistic sentiment
The Russian Revolution removes barrier to US participation
US enters WWI
Wilson w/draws troops from Vera Cruz
Espionage Act
Selective Service Act
1918:
Sedition Act
American forces arrived by 100s of 1000s and assumed independent responsibility for a segment of the Western Front
Wilson presents Fourteen Points to Congress
freedom of the seas
end to making of secret treaties
reduction of national armaments
impartial adjustment of colonial claims
self determination
removal of trade barriers
League of Nations
Influenza Pandemic
1919:
Schenck v. United States upheld constitutionality of the Espionage Act
Treaty of Versailles is signed, officially ending WWI
punished Germany
apply self-determination
establish League of Nations
Irreconcilable and Reservationist Factions in Congress → US never ratified Versailles treaty
Anti-German hysteria & anti-communist hysteria fuels the Red Scare + immigration restrictions of the 1920s
Palmer Raids
Strikes of 1919
1920s:
Modernism
Fundamentalism
Revivalists
1920: The 19th Amendment is ratified, granting women the right to vote.
1921:
Tulsa Race Massacre
resurgence of White Southern Pride (monuments + KKK)
decline of the Progressive impulse
First Quota Act
Sacco & Vanzetti Trial
Warren Harding elected president (surrounded by corruption)
Washington Conference
Five Power Treaty (ratio of warships)
Four Power Treaty (respect territories in the Pacific)
Nine Power Treaty (Open door policy in China)
1922: Fordney–McCumber Tariff (extremely destructive)
1923: Coolidge becomes president (“Silent Cal,” pro-business)
1924:
Second Quota Act
Dawes Plan
1925: Scopes Trial; Scopes was convicted, later overturned
1928:
Kellog-Briand Pact
Coolidge declines 2nd term, Hoover nominated as Republican candidate + elected president w/ promise to end poverty
1929:The stock market crash occurs in October, marking the beginning of the Great Depression.
1930s: Dust Bowl on the Great Plains
1930: Hawley-Smoot Tariff (highest in history; retaliation from Euro nations)
1931: Debt Moratorium (conditions so bad that Dawes plan could no longer continue)
1932:
the Bonus March
Election of 1932: Depression’s worst year
Stimson Doctrine refuses to recognize legitimacy of Japanese occupation of Manchuria
1933:
Franklin D. Roosevelt is inaugurated as president and introduces the New Deal to combat the economic crisis; 3 R’s:
Relief
Recovery
Reform
first 100 days:
Brain trust
immediately called Congress into session
passed more laws than any single Congress in history
fireside chats
21st Amendment ratified, repealing 18th Amendment
1934: Roosevelt convinces congress to nullify Platt Amendment
1935:
launched 2nd New Deal focused on relief + reform
Wagner Act
Social Security Act
Neutrality Act of 1935: authorized president to prohibit all arms shipments + to forbid US citizens from traveling on ships of belligerents
1936:
Election of 1936 → FDR wins every state but Maine + Vermont
Neutrality Act of 1936: forbade extension of loans & credit to belligerents
Civil War in Spain breaks out
1937-1938: Recession
1937:
Judicial-Reorganization bill (decisively defeated; would have allowed Roosevelt to pack the SC w/ liberal Justices)
Neutrality Act of 1937: forbade shipment of arms to opposing sides of civil war in Spain
1938:
Fair Labor Standards Act (last major reform of the New Deal)
minimum wage
maximum 40 hour work week w/ 1.5 rate for overtime
child labor restrictions for hiring under 16 y/o
Cash & Carry policy → a belligerent nation can buy US arms if they used their own ships + paid cash
1940:
WWII breaks out in Europe
isolationists form “America First” Committee
Selective Service Act
Destroyer-for-Bases Deal
Election of 1940: Roosevelt wins 3rd term
1941:
Lend Lease Act (ends Cash & Carry to support Britain)
US enters WWII
Pearl Harbor; US declares war the next day
1944: Roosevelt wins 4th term
1945:
US drops two atomic bombs on Japan
Yalta Conference
Death of FDR
Potsdam
Period 8: 1945-1980
1945: Allied powers establish the United Nations
1947: US begins the Marshall Plan to aid Europe
1949: Soviet Union explodes its first atomic bomb
1950: The Korean War begins
1954: Brown v. Board of Education declares racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
1955: Martin Luther King Jr. emerges as a leader in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, advocating for nonviolent resistance against racial injustice
1957: The launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union marks the beginning of the space race and escalates Cold War tensions.
1962: The Cuban Missile Crisis almost ignites a US-Soviet war
1963: President John F. Kennedy is assassinated
1965: US involvement in the Vietnam War escalates as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution is passed, allowing for increased military action.
1969: US moon landing
1972: President Nixon visits Communist China
1974: Nixon resigns over the Watergate Scandal
1975: The Vietnam War ends as Saigon falls to North Vietnamese forces
1979: The Iranian Revolution leads to the establishment of an Islamic Republic. US hostages taken
Period 9: 1980-Present
1981: Ronald Reagan becomes president, a sign of rising conservativism
1989: Destruction of the Berlin Wall symbolizes the decline of communism
1991:
The Soviet Union officially dissolves into 15 separate countries, marking the end of the Cold War.
The World Wide Web becomes available to the public
1999: Fifteen people die in shootings at Columbine High School in Colorado
2001: September 11th terrorist attacks
2009: Barack Obama is inaugurated as the first African American president of the United States.
2017: Donald Trump takes office as president
Condensed Timeline / Summary
Period 1: 1491-1607
Indigenous cultures prior to European contact and the establishment of early colonies.
Period 2: 1607-1754
Focus on the development of British colonies, interactions with indigenous populations, and establishment of distinct colonial regions.
Period 3: 1754-1800
Covers the French and Indian War, the American Revolution, the formation of the United States, and early challenges of the new nation.
Period 4: 1800-1848
Explores the Market Revolution, expansion of democracy, cultural nationalism, the Second Great Awakening, and various reform movements.
Period 5: 1844-1877
Deals with Manifest Destiny, the Mexican-American War, escalating tensions over slavery, the Civil War, and Reconstruction.
Period 6: 1865-1898
Focuses on westward expansion, industrialization, agricultural changes, populism, immigration, and the Gilded Age.
Period 7: 1890-1945
Covers progressivism, imperialism, World War I, the 1920s, the Great Depression, the New Deal, and World War II.
Period 8: 1945-1980
Includes discussion of the Cold War, civil rights movement, Vietnam War, and social and political changes.
Period 9: 1980-Present
Covers contemporary issues, including the end of the Cold War