Untitled Flashcards Set

Pollination vs. Fertilization

• Pollination: Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma (happens on the flower).
  
  

• Fertilization: When sperm from pollen joins with egg (happens in the ovary).
  
  

Parts of a Flower & Functions

• Petal: Attracts pollinators.
  
  

• Sepal: Protects the bud.
  
  

• Stamen: Male part – includes anther (makes pollen) & filament (holds anther).
  
  

• Carpel/Pistil: Female part – includes stigma (catches pollen), style, and ovary (holds ovules).
  
  

Plant Groups

Plant Lifespans

• Annual: Lives 1 year (e.g., marigold)
  
  

• Biennial: Lives 2 years (e.g., carrot)
  
  

• Perennial: Lives many years (e.g., trees)

🐾 ANIMALS

Animal Classifications (Phyla) – Examples

• Porifera – Sponges
  
  

• Cnidaria – Jellyfish, coral
  
  

• Platyhelminthes – Flatworms
  
  

• Nematoda – Roundworms
  
  

• Annelida – Earthworms
  
  

• Mollusca – Snails, clams
  
  

• Arthropoda – Insects, spiders, crabs
  
  

• Echinodermata – Starfish
  
  

• Chordata – Vertebrates (fish, reptiles, birds, mammals)

Mammals (Dissection focus)

• Hair/fur
  
  

• Warm-blooded
  
  

• Mammary glands (milk)
  
  

• Live birth (usually)

🌱 UNIT 11: ECOLOGY & POPULATIONS

Main Energy Source in Ecosystems

• Producers (plants, algae) make most of the energy via photosynthesis (sunlight).
  
  

Biodiversity

• Measures the variety of life (number of species) in an area.
  
  

Definitions

• Population: Group of same species in one place (e.g., all deer in a forest).
  
  

• Ecosystem: All living + nonliving things in an area (e.g., coral reef).
  
  

Population Characteristics

• Density: Number of individuals per area.
  
  

• Dispersion: How spaced out they are (clumped, uniform, random).
  
  

Generalist vs. Specialist

• Generalist: Eats many things (e.g., raccoon)
  
  

• Specialist: Eats only specific things (e.g., koala eats eucalyptus)
  
  

• Super specialist: Very picky – can’t survive change well.
  
  

Biotic vs. Abiotic

• Biotic: Living parts (animals, plants)
  
  

• Abiotic: Non-living parts (water, sunlight, temperature)
  
  

If a Key Individual is Lost

• It can unbalance the ecosystem – fewer prey, more of some species, etc.
  
  

• Can change food webs and population sizes.

Interspecific Interactions (between different species)

• Mutualism: Both benefit (bee & flower)
  
  

• Commensalism: One benefits, other not affected (bird in tree)
  
  

• Predation: One eats the other (hawk & mouse)
  
  

• Competition: Both harmed by fighting for resources
  
  

🔄 Symbiosis = Close, long-term relationship

• Includes: Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism
  
  

Types of Predation

• Active hunting: Lion hunting zebra
  
  

• Ambush: Spider in web
  
  

• Traps: Venus flytrap
  
  

Predator Adaptations

• Sharp teeth, speed, camouflage
  
  

Prey Adaptations

• Camouflage, warning colors, mimicry, speed

Consumers

• Primary: Herbivores (rabbit)
  
  

• Secondary: Eat herbivores (snake)
  
  

• Tertiary: Top predators (hawk)
  
  

Energy Pyramid

• Most energy at the bottom (producers)
  
  

• Least energy at the top (top predators)
  
  

• Only ~10% energy passes up each level
  Food Chain vs. Food Web

• Chain: One path of energy
  
  

• Web: Many chains connected

Population Changes

• Increase: Births, immigration
  
  

• Decrease: Deaths, emigration
  
  

Density-Dependent vs. Independent

• Dependent: Affected by population size (food, disease)
  
  

• Independent: Not affected by size (weather, floods)

Competition

• One species may outcompete the other or they may divide the resources.
  
  

Ecological Equivalent

• Species in different areas that fill the same role (e.g., wolf in North America, dingo in Australia)
  
  

Population Density

• Formula: # of individuals ÷ area

🔄 Ecological Succession

Primary vs. Secondary

Climax Community

• Final, stable community (like a mature forest)
  
  

What Determines Climax Community?

• Climate, soil type, geography

🌿 Invasive Species

• Invasive Species: Not native, spreads fast, harms environment
  
  

• Traits: Fast growth, no natural predators, strong competitors
  
  

• Control methods: Physical removal, chemicals, biological controls
  
  

• Examples in FL: Burmese python, lionfish, melaleuca

🔁 Biogeochemical Cycles

What it Means:

• Movement of elements (C, N, H2O, etc.) through living & nonliving parts of Earth
  
  

Water Cycle:

• Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Runoff/groundwater
  
  

Carbon Cycle:

• Photosynthesis: Plants take in CO₂
  
  

• Respiration: Animals/plants release CO₂
  
  

• Burning fossil fuels adds CO₂
  
  

Oxygen Cycle:

• Photosynthesis: Releases O₂
  
  

• Respiration: Uses O₂
  
  

Nitrogen Cycle:

• Nitrogen fixation: Bacteria in soil or roots turn N₂ into usable forms
  
  

• Plants use it to grow
  
  

Phosphorus Cycle:

• Involves weathering of rocks

Human Impact

• Burning fossil fuels = more CO₂
  
  

• Deforestation = less CO₂ absorption
  
  

• Pollution affects water cycle

Energy vs. Matter Movement

• Energy: Flows one way (sun → heat lost)
  
  

• Matter: Recycled in cycles
  Here’s a simple and complete study guide for plant evolution, adaptations, and alternation of generations:

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  🌿 Features Plants Needed to Live on Land

  To survive outside of water, plants developed:

  Feature	Function
  Cuticle	Waxy coating to prevent water loss
  Stomata	Openings for gas exchange
  Vascular tissue	Tubes (xylem & phloem) to move water and nutrients
  Roots	Anchor plant & absorb water from soil
  Support structures	Stems and lignin to stand upright
  Pollen	To reproduce without needing water
  Seeds	Protect and nourish embryo; allow dormancy
  Flowers & Fruits	Attract pollinators and help with seed dispersal (in angiosperms)

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  🌱 General Evolution of Land Plants

  Common ancestor: A type of green algae (likely from freshwater)

  Evolutionary Steps – With Adaptations:

  1. Green Algae

     • Lived in water

     • No roots, stems, leaves

  2. Bryophytes (e.g., moss)

     • First land plants

     • Adaptation: Cuticle, protected embryos

     • Still no vascular tissue → small & near water

  3. Pteridophytes (e.g., ferns)

     • Vascular tissue (xylem/phloem) developed

     • Allowed them to grow taller

     • Still rely on water for reproduction (sperm swims)

  4. Gymnosperms (e.g., pine trees)

     • Adaptation: Seeds, pollen

     • Don’t need water for fertilization

     • Reproduce using cones

  5. Angiosperms (e.g., flowering plants)

     • Adaptation: Flowers, fruits

     • Most diverse and advanced

     • Efficient pollination and seed dispersal

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  Quick Summary of Evolution

  Group	Adaptations	Still Need Water to Reproduce?
  Green algae	None – aquatic	Yes
  Bryophytes	Cuticle, embryo protection	Yes
  Pteridophytes	Vascular tissue	Yes
  Gymnosperms	Seeds, pollen	No
  Angiosperms	Flowers, fruits	No

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  🔁 Alternation of Generations

  Plants switch between two stages:

  1. Gametophyte (haploid, N): makes gametes (egg & sperm)

  2. Sporophyte (diploid, 2N): makes spores

  General Cycle:

  1. Gametophyte (N) → makes egg & sperm (by mitosis)

  2. Egg + sperm → zygote (2N)

  3. Zygote grows into sporophyte (2N)

  4. Sporophyte makes spores (N) by meiosis

  5. Spores grow into new gametophyte (N)

  🌀 And the cycle repeats.

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  Diagram (simplified):

  Gametophyte (N)
     ↓ makes gametes
  Egg + Sperm → Zygote (2N)
     ↓ grows into
  Sporophyte (2N)
     ↓ meiosis
  Spores (N)
     ↓ grows into
  Gametophyte (N)
  

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  Dominant Stage by Group

  Plant Group	Dominant Generation
  Bryophytes	Gametophyte
  Ferns (Pteridophytes)	Sporophyte
  Gymnosperms	Sporophyte
  Angiosperms	Sporophyte