midterm review

1. What happened in the Great Compromise?

The great compromise was an agreement made at the 1787 constitutional convention that connected ideas from two different plans on how to set up congress. It created the bicameral legislature which consisted of two houses. In the house of representatives, states would have representation that is based in population, helping bigger states. In the senate each state would have two senators which would have smaller states equal power. This helped balance the interests of both large and small states. 

2. What was the 3/5^th compromise?

 This was deal that happened during the constitutional convention where each enslaves person would count as ⅗ of a person for when deciding a states population for representation for congress. This gave southern states more power. 

•  Southern states wanted to count enslaved people to increase their population and get more representatives.

• Northern states, where slavery was less common, didn't want to give southern states more power this way.

• This gave southern states more representation in Congress, but it was seen as a temporary solution to a complex issue.

3. What was the slave trade compromise?

A compromise that allowed the slave trade to continue for 20 more years until (1808) before congress could ban it, while also saying that no state could stop slaves from being counted in population for representation.  

4. What was the Virginia plan?

Proposed by larger states, it suggested a bicameral legislature (two houses) where representation would be based on state population, giving more power to bigger states.

5. What was the New Jersey plan?

Proposed by smaller states, it suggested a unicameral legislature (one house) with equal representation for each state, regardless of size.

6. What is Shay’s Rebellion and what was its major impact?

A revolt by farmers in Massachusetts in 1786-87 against economic hardships. It showed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and helped lead to the creation of the U.S. Constitution.

7. What are the amendments to the constitution?

Changes made to the Constitution. There are 27 amendments, the first 10 are the Bill of Rights (e.g., freedom of speech, religion).

8. What are the 
   

   1. Enumerated powers:  Powers specifically listed in the Constitution for the federal government (like declaring war, coin money).

   2. Implied powers:  Powers not specifically listed, but suggested by the Constitution, like the power to create a national bank.

   3. Inherent powers: Powers that the government has because it's a sovereign nation (e.g., regulating immigration).

   4. Formal powers:  Powers clearly stated in the Constitution, like the president's power to veto.

   5. Informal powers: Powers not stated in the Constitution but used by officials, like the president's ability to set policy agendas.

   6. Delegated powers:Powers given to the federal government by the Constitution.

   7. Reserved powers: Powers kept by the states, like education or police powers.

   8. Concurrent powers: Powers shared by both the federal and state governments, like taxing.

9. What is the
   

   1. Supremacy Clause: The Constitution and federal laws are the "supreme law of the land," meaning they override state laws when there’s a conflict.

   2. Commerce Clause: Gives Congress the power to regulate trade between states and with other countries.

   3. Necessary and Proper Clause:  Allows Congress to make laws that are "necessary and proper" for carrying out its powers (also called the Elastic Clause).

   4. Establishment Clause:Prevents the government from establishing an official religion.

   5. Free Exercise Clause: Protects people's right to practice their religion freely.

   6. Due Process Clause: Guarantees fair treatment through the judicial system.

   7. Equal Protection Clause: Ensures all people are treated equally under the law
      

10. What are the articles of confederation?

 The first U.S. government system, giving most power to the states and very little to the central government.

11. Why did the Articles of Confederation fail?

The Articles gave too much power to states and not enough to the national government, causing problems with things like taxes, trade, and defense.

12. How does a constitutional amendment get passed? An amendment can be proposed by Congress (with 2/3 of both houses agreeing) or by a national convention. Then, it must be ratified by 3/4 of the states.

13. What are the principles of government:
    

    1. Federalism: The system where power is shared between the national government and state governments.

    2. Rule of law: Everyone, including government leaders, must follow the law.

    3. Checks and balances: Each branch of government (executive, legislative, judicial) can limit the powers of the other branches to prevent one from becoming too powerful.

    4. Separation of powers: The division of government into three branches: Executive (President), Legislative (Congress), and Judicial (Courts).

    5. Republicanism: The idea that the government should be based on elected representatives rather than a monarchy.

    6. Popular sovereignty: The idea that the people have the ultimate power and authority in government.

    7. Judicial review: The power of the courts to review and potentially overturn laws or executive actions that they find unconstitutional.

    8. Limited government: The government only has the powers granted to it by the Constitution
       

14. What are the models of representative democracy?

    1. Participatory democracy: A system where citizens directly participate in decision-making.

    2. Pluralist democracy: A system where different groups (e.g., interest groups) influence decisions.

    3. Elite democracy: A system where a small group of elites or leaders make most decisions.

    4. Majoritarian democracy: A system where the majority rules and makes decisions.

Congress

1. What are the 5 things that Congress does?  Makes laws, approves budgets, declares war, confirms appointments, and investigates issues.

2. What is 

   1. A census: A survey conducted every 10 years to count the U.S. population, which affects representation in Congress.

   2. Reapportionment: The process of redistributing seats in the House of Representatives based on population changes.

   3. Redistricting: Drawing new district lines for the House of Representatives after reapportionment.

   4. Gerrymandering: Drawing district lines in strange shapes to benefit a particular political party.

3. What is pork barrel spending? When Congress members add local projects to bills to help their re-election chances.

4. What are the advantages of incumbency?Incumbents (current officeholders) have advantages like name recognition and easier access to fundraising.

5. What are the different types of committees
   

   1. Joint:  both house and senate members 

   2. Special: Temporary committees for specific issues.

   3. Conference: Works out differences in House and Senate versions of a bill

   4. Standing: Permanent committees focused on specific areas (e.g., finance, defense).

6. How do committees work in Congress?  Committees review bills, make changes, and recommend them to the full House or Senate.

7. What constitutional powers does Congress have? Include powers to tax, declare war, regulate commerce, and make laws.

8. What is the committee of the whole? A process where the entire House can discuss and amend a bill, speeding up the legislative process.

9. What is gridlock? When Congress can't agree on laws, causing a slowdown in decision-making.

10. What is a divided government?  When one party controls the White House and the other controls Congress.                                                                         

11. What is a filibuster?A tactic used in the Senate to delay or block a vote by talking for a long time.

12. What is the house ways and means committee?Deals with taxes and revenue-related issues.

13. What is the house rules committee? Decides the rules for how a bill will be debated in the House.

14. Where does most of the work take place in Congress?Most work, like creating and reviewing bills, happens in committees.

15. What is discretionary spending?Spending that Congress can adjust, like funding for defense or education.

16. How does Congress influence the Judiciary?By confirming judges and passing laws affecting the courts.

17. How does Congress influence the Executive? By passing laws, controlling the budget, and overriding vetoes.

18. Which powers are shared between the House and the Senate?Both can propose bills, approve appointments, and declare war.

19. What powers does the Senate have that the House does not?Ratify treaties, approve presidential appointments (like judges).

20. What powers does the House have that the Senate does not?Start revenue (tax) bills and impeach officials.

21. What is Congressional Oversight?When Congress reviews and monitors the actions of the executive branch and other parts of government.

22. What does the Senate Judiciary Committee do?Reviews judicial appointments and handles issues about the courts.

President

1. What does the white house staff do? The White House staff helps the president with their daily duties. This includes managing the president’s schedule, advising them on policy, handling communication, and organizing events. They help the president carry out decisions and interact with the public and other government officials.

2. Who is on the white house staff? The White House staff includes the Chief of Staff (the president’s main advisor), press secretary, speechwriters, policy advisors, and assistants. There are also personal aides who help the president with tasks like managing meetings and communicating with others.

3. What are the roles of the president?

Chief Executive: Ensures laws are enforced.

Commander-in-Chief: Leads the military.

Chief Diplomat: Manages relations with other countries.

Chief Legislator: Suggests laws and can veto bills.

Head of State: Represents the country in ceremonies.

Economic Leader: Deals with issues like unemployment, taxes, and government spending.

Party Leader: Leads their political party.

4. What is the War Powers Resolution? The War Powers Resolution limits the president's ability to send troops into combat without Congress's approval. It requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of sending troops and can only keep them deployed for 60 days without Congress’s permission.

5. How does the Electoral College function? The Electoral College is a system where voters indirectly elect the president. Each state has a certain number of electors based on its population. When people vote in a presidential election, they are actually voting for electors who then vote for the president. A candidate needs 270 out of 538 electoral votes to win.

6. What constitutional powers does the president have?The president can veto laws, negotiate treaties, appoint judges and officials, and command the military. These powers are given by the Constitution.

7. What are the informal powers of the president?Informal powers are not written in the Constitution but help the president do their job. These include using public speeches to influence the public and Congress, making executive orders, and leading the nation during crises.

8. How does the president avoid Constitutional checks from the Congress?The president can use executive orders (which don’t need Congress’s approval) and can veto legislation. They can also make decisions as Commander-in-Chief without needing Congress's permission, sometimes.

9. What is an executive order? Why would a president issue an executive order? An executive order is a rule or command issued by the president to direct the government or its agencies. It doesn’t need approval from Congress and is often used to manage national emergencies or address issues that need quick action.

10. What is an executive agreement? Why would a president create an executive agreement? An executive agreement is a deal between the U.S. and another country that the president can make without Congress’s approval. Presidents use them for quick diplomacy on issues like trade or military cooperation.

11. What is a signing statement? Why would a president use a signing statement?A signing statement is a written comment made by the president when signing a bill into law. It may explain how the president plans to enforce or interpret the law. Presidents use them to influence how laws are implemented.

12. What is the bully pulpit? How does the president use the bully pulpit to make policy?The bully pulpit is the president’s ability to speak directly to the public to influence opinion and rally support for policies. Presidents use it to push their agenda and persuade people to support their ideas.

The Courts

1. What is 
   

   1. Amicus curiae brief: It’s a document filed by someone who is not part of a case but wants to offer information or arguments for the court to consider. It’s often used by interest groups or experts. (AKA “friend of the court”).

   2. Habeas corpus: Habeas corpus is a legal rule that protects people from being held in prison without being charged with a crime. It guarantees the right to a fair trial.

   3. Writ of certiorari: This is a request for the Supreme Court to review a lower court’s decision. If the Supreme Court agrees, they issue a writ to hear the case.

   4. Writ of mandamus: a court order that tells a government official or agency to do something they are supposed to do but haven't. If someone believes an official is not doing their job as required by law, they can ask the court to order that official to take action.

   5. Stare decisis: Stare decisis is the principle that courts should follow previous rulings when making decisions in similar cases. It helps keep the law consistent.

   6. Judicial Review: Judicial review is the power of the courts to decide if laws and actions by the government are constitutional.

   7. Majority opinion: The majority opinion is the official decision in a Supreme Court case, written by one of the justices who voted with the majority.

   8. Dissenting opinion:  A dissenting opinion is written by a justice who disagrees with the majority’s decision.

2. What is a bill of attainder?A bill of attainder is a law that punishes someone without a trial, which is prohibited by the Constitution.

3. What is ex post facto law? An ex post facto law makes something illegal after it has already been done. The Constitution bans these laws.

4. What constitutional powers do the courts have?The courts can interpret the laws, rule on the constitutionality of laws, and resolve legal disputes.

5. What is judicial activism?Judicial activism is when courts make rulings that create new policies or laws, often based on their personal views.

6. What is judicial restraint? Judicial restraint is when courts limit their power to make new laws and prefer to stick closely to the Constitution and past decisions. 

7. What is the rule of four? In the Supreme Court, at least four justices must agree to hear a case.

8. Why is Federalist 78 important to the judiciary?Federalist 78 explains why an independent judiciary is important for protecting rights and maintaining the balance of power in the government.

9. Where does the court get the power of judicial review? The power of judicial review comes from the case Marbury v. Madison (1803), which established that courts can declare laws unconstitutional.

10. What were the antifederalists’ fear of the judiciary as Hamilton outlined? Anti-federalists feared the judiciary would become too powerful and unelected judges could make decisions that go against the will of the people.

Bureaucracy

1. What type of bureaucratic organization is 

1. NASA- US government agency 

2. USPS- independent executive agency  

3. FCC-independent agency 

4. FEC- independent government agency 

5. EPA- independent agency 

6. GSA- independent executive agency 

7. SEC- independent regulatory agency 

8. Amtrak- government corporation 

2. What is a
   

   1. Government corporation- A business owned by the government (e.g., USPS).

   2. Independent regulatory agency-  Agencies that regulate specific areas like the FCC or EPA.

   3. Independent executive agency- Agencies that are part of the executive branch but are not under a department (e.g., NASA).

   4. Cabinet department- Major divisions of the government (e.g., Department of Education, Defense).

3. What is the Federal Reserve? What do they do?The Federal Reserve controls the country’s money supply and manages interest rates to stabilize the economy.

4. What is the Iron Triangle? The Iron Triangle refers to the strong relationships between Congress, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups. They work together to influence policies.

5. How does the Congress control/check the bureaucracy? Congress controls the bureaucracy by passing laws that regulate agencies, approving their budgets, and holding hearings to oversee their activities.

6. How does the president control bureaucratic agencies? (especially when they are independent)

The president appoints agency leaders and can issue executive orders to influence their direction.

7. How does the court control the bureaucracy?  Courts can rule that a bureaucratic action is unconstitutional or illegal, limiting their power.

8. How is U.S. bureaucracy structured? The U.S. bureaucracy is divided into agencies and departments that carry out laws and services.

9. Who creates administrative law? Administrative law is created by government agencies through rules and regulations they set.

10. What is bureaucratic discretion? Bureaucratic discretion is the ability of agencies to make decisions and interpret laws as they enforce them.

11. What are the main critiques of the bureaucracy? Bureaucracies can be slow, inefficient, and too complicated. Critics argue they are not accountable and waste taxpayer money.

Federalism

1. What is federalism? Federalism is the division of power between the national government and state governments.

2. How does America structure federalism? In the U.S., certain powers are shared between the federal government and state governments. Some powers belong only to the federal government, others to the states, and some are shared.

3. What are the federalist papers about? What was the goal of the papers? The Federalist Papers were written to persuade people to support the new U.S. Constitution. They argued for a strong central government.

4. What was the federalist perspective? Federalists supported a strong national government that could unite the country and provide stability.

5. What did the Anti-federalists want? How were they appeased? Anti-federalists wanted a weaker central government and more power for states. They were appeased with the Bill of Rights, which protected individual freedoms.

6.  How did the Constitution create a strong federal government?The Constitution gave the federal government the power to tax, regulate trade, and create laws that apply to everyone.

7. What are mandates? Mandates are requirements from the federal government for states to follow certain rules or programs.

8. What are grants? Grants are money given by the federal government to states or local governments for specific programs.

9. What are the different types of grants?

• Categorical grants: Money for specific programs.

• Block grants: Money given with fewer restrictions, allowing more local control.

10. What is devolution? Devolution is the transfer of powers from the federal government to state or local governments.

11. What are natural rights/unalienable rights? Natural rights are rights that every person is born with, like life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

12. What is dual federalism? Dual federalism is when the federal government and state governments operate in their own separate spheres, with little overlap.

13. What is cooperative federalism? Cooperative federalism is when the federal and state governments work together to solve problems.

14. What is fiscal federalism? Fiscal federalism is the financial relationship between the federal government and the states, especially in terms of grants and funding.

15. What is competitive federalism? Competitive federalism is when states compete with each other to offer the best policies or services.

Policy

1. What is Policy? Policy is a plan or course of action made by the government to address issues or problems.

2. Who makes policy?Policymakers include the president, Congress, and government agencies.

3. Who sets monetary policy?Monetary policy is how the government controls the money in the economy. It helps keep the economy stable by making sure there’s enough money, and that prices don’t rise too quickly (which is called inflation). The Federal Reserve sets monetary policy, which controls the money supply and interest rates.

4. Who sets fiscal policy?Congress and the president set fiscal policy, which involves government spending and taxes.

5. What is the difference between fiscal and monetary policy? Fiscal policy relates to government spending and taxes, while monetary policy controls the money supply and interest rates.

6. What is the difference between Medicare and Medicaid?

• Medicare is a health insurance program for people over 65, and some younger people with disabilities. It’s mostly for older adults who paid into the system during their working years, and it helps cover things like hospital visits and doctor’s appointments.

• Medicaid is a health insurance program for low-income people, including children, pregnant women, elderly people, and people with disabilities. It’s run by both state and federal governments, and the eligibility depends on income and other factors.

7. What is social security? Social Security is a government program that provides financial help to retired people, people with disabilities, and families of workers who have passed away. Workers pay into Social Security throughout their careers, and they get benefits when they retire or if they are unable to work due to a disability.

8. What is social welfare policy? Social Welfare Policy refers to government programs that provide help to people in need, such as financial aid, healthcare, food assistance, and housing support. These programs aim to improve the well-being of people who are struggling.

9. What is an entitlement program? An Entitlement Program is a government program that guarantees benefits to people who meet certain requirements. For example, if you qualify for Social Security, Medicare, or Medicaid, you are entitled to get those benefits, no matter how many people need them.

10. What are the types of taxes

    1. Regressive-  A tax where lower-income people pay a higher percentage of their income than richer people.

    2. Progressive- A tax where richer people pay a higher percentage of their income than poorer people. 

    3. Flat- A tax where everyone pays the same percentage of their income, no matter how much they make.

    4. Graduated income- This is the same as a progressive tax. It means that the more money you earn, the higher percentage of your income you pay in taxes.

*Keynesian economics: 

Keynesian economics is an economic theory that says the government should get involved in the economy to help it grow, especially during tough times.

According to this idea, if the economy is slowing down (like during a recession), the government should spend money and create jobs to help boost demand and get the economy moving again.

The theory was developed by John Maynard Keynes, who believed that when people aren’t spending enough, the government should step in and spend money to make up for that. This can include things like building infrastructure or providing social services.

The goal is to smooth out the ups and downs of the economy, making sure people have jobs and businesses are doing well.

*discretionary authority:  

Discretionary authority refers to the power or freedom that government officials or agencies have to make decisions on their own, without needing to follow strict rules or instructions.

For example, when a government agency has discretionary authority, it can make decisions about how to enforce a law, or how to spend money, based on the situation at hand.

It allows flexibility for those in charge to respond to changes or special circumstances that might not be covered by existing laws or regulations.

For instance, a police officer might have discretionary authority to decide whether to give a warning or issue a ticket, depending on the situation. Similarly, a government agency may use discretionary authority to decide how to handle different cases or programs based on their priorities 

Foundational Documents and Court Cases

Know the following Primary Sources: Federalist #10, Brutus #1, The Declaration of Independence, The Articles of Confederation, The Constitution of the United States, Federalist #51, Letter from Birmingham Jail, Federalist #70, Federalist #78, and George Washington Farewell Address.

Know the following Court Cases: McCulloch v. Maryland, United States v. Lopez, Engel v. Vitale, Wisconsin v. Yoder, Tinker v. Des Moines, New York Times v. United States, Schenck v. United States, Gideon v. Wainwright, Roe v. Wade, McDonald v. Chicago, Brown v. Board of Education, Citizens United v. FEC, Baker v. Carr, Shaw v. Reno, Marbury v. Madison

Complete the following chart of foundational documents