AP American Government and Politics Test Review Notes (copy)

The Basics

Exam on Tue, May 6, 2025.
Online resources: College Board, CANVAS, CitizenU, MrReview.org, YouTube.

Review includes five units:- Foundations of American Democracy
- Interaction Among Branches of Government
- Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
- American Political Ideologies and Beliefs
- Political Participation
Essential Supreme Court Cases and Foundational Documents also covered.

The AP American Government Course

5 Big Ideas, 5 Units.
20 Enduring Understandings.
61 Learning Objectives.
123 Essential Knowledge Points.
15 required Supreme Court cases.
9 required foundational documents.

Skills

Apply concepts.
Analyze data (quantitative and qualitative).
Analyze text-based sources.
Compare political concepts.
Identify essential knowledge points.
Argue effectively.

The Test

Section I: Multiple Choice (55 Questions, 1 Hour, 20 Minutes, 50% of Exam Score).- Quantitative, Qualitative, Visual Analysis; Concept Application; Comparison; Knowledge.
Section II: Free Response (4 Questions, 1 Hour, 40 Minutes, 50% of Exam Score).- Concept Application (3 points).
- Quantitative Analysis (4 points).
- SCOTUS Comparison (4 points).
- Argument Essay (6 points).

Unit 1: Foundations of Democracy

Big Ideas:- Constitutionalism.
- Liberty and Order.
- Civic Participation.
- Competing Policy-Making Interests.
- Methods of Political Analysis.
Essential Knowledge Points:- Limited government.
- Natural rights.
- Popular sovereignty.
- Republicanism.
- Social contract.
Representative Democracy Models:- Participatory: broad participation.
- Pluralist: group-based activism.
- Elite: decisions by elected representatives.
Federalist 10: large republic controls factions.
Brutus 1: small, decentralized republic protects liberty.
Articles of Confederation Weaknesses:- Lack of military power (Shays’ Rebellion).
- No tax enforcement.
- Unanimous amendment requirement.
Constitutional Convention Compromises:- Great (Connecticut) Compromise.
- Electoral College.
- Three-Fifths Compromise.
- Compromise on the importation of slaves.
Article V: Amendment process.
Federalist #51: separation of powers, checks and balances.

Unit 1: Key Vocabulary

Constitutionalism: Government rooted in a written constitution, balancing majority rule and minority rights.
Popular Sovereignty: People shape government policies; power from consent of governed.
Natural Rights: Inalienable protections (life, liberty, property/pursuit of happiness).
Social Contract: Individuals give up some freedoms for government regulation with popular sovereignty.
Limited Government: Boundaries on government freedoms.
Rule of Law: Government acts according to established laws.
Republicanism: Elites govern via elected representatives.
Grand Committee: Delegates resolving state representation in Congress (Great Compromise).
Declaration of Independence: Explanation for breaking from Britain; states democratic ideals.
Participatory Democracy: Broad citizen involvement influencing policy.
Pluralist Democracy: Competing interest groups empower diverse citizenry.
Elite Democracy: Specialized, talented members govern.
Federalists: Supporters of a stronger central government.
Anti-Federalists: Opponents of a stronger central government.
Factions: Political allies (parties, interest groups).
Federalist 10: Large republic prevents tyranny of majority factions.
Brutus 1: Warns of dangers to personal liberty from large government.
Shay’s Rebellion: Exposed weaknesses of Articles of Confederation.
Articles of Confederation: First national government; weak central authority.
Connecticut Compromise: Resolution for state representation in Congress.
3/5s Compromise: Slaves counted as 3/5 a person for representation.
Checks and Balances: Prevents unilateral government action.
Separation of Powers: Independence of government functions.
Federalism: Prevents tyranny through distributed power.
Exclusive Powers: Powers exclusive to the federal government.
Supremacy Clause: Federal government supreme when in conflict with state law.
Reserved Powers: Powers for states if not given to the federal government.
Concurrent Powers: Shared powers between federal and state governments.
Federal Mandates: Requirements for states to carry out federal policies.
Commerce Clause: Power to regulate interstate commerce.
Necessary and Proper Clause: Expands Congress’ enumerated powers.

Unit 2: Interaction Among Branches of Government

Big Ideas:- Constitutionalism.
- Liberty and Order.
- Civic Participation.
- Competing Policy-Making Interests.
- Methods of Political Analysis.
Relevant to energy in the Executive are:-
- Unity.
- Duration.
- Adequate provision for its support.
- Competent powers.

Unit 2: Key Vocabulary

Article I: Describes the legislative branch.
Enumerated Powers: Specified powers of Congress.
Implied Powers: Unenumerated powers linked to the Necessary and Proper Clause.
House of Representatives: Lower chamber elected to 2-year terms; proportional representation.
Speaker of the House: Most powerful member, controls legislative calendar.
US Senate: Upper chamber elected to 6-year terms; equal representation.
Senate Majority Leader: Controls legislative calendar.
Legislative Process: Passing a bill in identical form with majority support.
Constituency: Individuals in a legislator’s district.
Congressional coalitions: Alliances for a collective purpose.
Bicameralism: Division of a legislative body into two chambers.
Legislative Committees: Specialize in policy topics; standing, select, and conference.
Discharge Petition: Method to bypass a committee.
Party Whips: Pressure legislators for party support.
Open/Closed Rule: Allowing/prohibiting legislative amendments.
Filibuster: Unlimited debate to block legislation.
Hold: Senator opposes floor consideration.
Unanimous Consent: Senator requests a floor rule to be ignored.
Discretionary/Mandatory Spending: Annual spending choices vs. permanent programs.
Pork Barrel Legislation: Funding of local, wasteful projects.
Logrolling: Trading votes for legislative proposals.
Legislative Gridlock: Legislative inaction.
Redistricting: Redrawing legislative boundaries
Gerrymandering: Redrawing legislative boundaries by a state’s governing party to their advantage
Baker v. Carr (1961): “One man, one vote” principle.
Reno v. Shaw (1993): SCOTUS held that majority-minority districts created under the Voting Rights Act of 1965 could be constitutionally challenged if race was the only factor used in creating the district
Divided government: when at least one chamber of Congress is controlled by a party opposed to the President’s party
Trustee/Delegate/Partisan/Politico Model: Voting based on conscience, constituents, party, or a mix.
Article II: Section of the Constitution describing the executive branch.
Veto/Pocket Veto: Presidential rejection of legislation.
Treaties/Executive Agreement: Agreements with foreign countries/leaders.
Vested executive power: certain powers exercised by the president based upon tradition and connected to Article II’s clause stating that “executive power shall be vested in a President”
Executive Order: Directives on enforcing congressional laws.
Executive Privilege: Allows president to seek confidential advice.
Signing Statement: President’s interpretation of signed laws.
War Powers Resolution (1974): Limits a president’s ability to deploy troops without approval by Congress.
Executive Cabinet: Top officials implementing federal law.
White House Staff: a president’s close staff of advisers and support personnel who help shape policy proposals and executive actions to be enforced
Presidential appointment powers: president’s power to appoint top executive branch officials, ambassadors, SCOTUS justices including other federal judges, and military heads.
Senate confirmation: President must secure majority support of the Senate for the president’s nomination of top executive branch officials/ambassadors.
Judicial life tenure: a rule that federal judges can serve until they die or choose to retire that is intended to give independence to the federal judiciary
Chief executive: the president’s duty to enforce and implement federal laws
Commander in Chief: a role of a president to direct the branches of the national armed services
Chief Diplomat: a role of a president to engage in relations with other countries
Chief of Party: President as leader of their political party.
Head of State: a formal role of the president that appears to be a ceremonial role that makes a president the embodiment of America
Chief Legislature: a formal role of the president in which the Constitution states president can formally approve legislation or reject legislation
Chief Administrator: a formal power connected to the president’s power to appoint top executive branch officials/ambassadors.
Federalist 70: Energetic executive needed.
22nd Amendment: Limits president to two terms.
Formal / Informal Powers: Stated vs. unstated presidential powers.
Bully Pulpit: President's informal power to shape public opinion.
Agenda Setting: the president’s informal power to establish policy priorities for the government
Article III: Section describing the judicial branch.
Federalist 78: Describes the federal judiciary.
Judicial Review: Power of courts to determine law/action constitutionality.
Judicial Independence: Separation of judicial powers.
Judicial precedent: previous judicial decisions that shape the legal decisions by other courts
Political legitimacy: belief by citizens in the government’s right to rule
Jurisdiction: A court’s power to hear a legal case.
Writ of Certiorari: SCOTUS pick which cases to hear
Judicial Activism/Restraint: Changing/deferring to precedents.
Executive Departments: Enforce federal laws.
Government Corporations: Raise revenues outside taxation.
Issue Network: model to demonstrate that public policy making on a specific policy is often a product of relationships between three elements: a collection of congressional committees and subcommittees, many interest groups with conflicting viewpoints, and different departments, agencies, and commissions of the executive bureaucracy
Iron triangles: model to demonstrate that public policy making on a specific policy can occasionally be a product of relationships between three elements which is the congressional committee or subcommittee, a few related interest groups, and a specific executive bureaucracy
Political Patronage: Giving jobs to party loyalists.
Civil Service: Hiring based on merit, not politics.
Discretionary authority: when Congress often passes laws that grant some separate policy making power to federal agencies responsible for implementing those laws
Congressional Oversight: Duty to ensure executive agencies implement legislation.
Committee Hearings: Lawmakers meet with executive bureaucrats.
Power of the Purse: Congress controls revenue and spending.

Unit 3: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

Civil liberties: Protection of individuals from abuse by the government
*Civil rights: Protection of groups from discrimination by government and private actions.
Bill of Rights: First 10 Amendments of Constitution protecting from abuse by the government.
Establishment Clause: Government should not establish religion.
Free Exercise Clause: Government should not prevent religious practice.
Symbolic Speech: Conveying a political message without words.
Defamation: Speech that causes reputational harm.
Clear and present danger: the legal standard from Scheck v. US. (1919) in which speech to encourage avoiding the military draft was allowed to be punished for the possibility of causing a danger to national defense
Prior restraint: Governmental attempt to restrict distribution of speech.
McDonald v. Chicago (2010): The Second Amendment’s right to bear arms to state and local governments through the 14th Amendment’s due process clause.
Selective incorporation: SCOTUS used a case-by-case approach to apply the protections to state and local governments
Due Process Clause: used by the Supreme Court to incorporate (apply) the guarantees of much of the Bill of Rights to the States.
Fourth Amendment: protects individuals from unreasonable searches and seizures by law enforcement officers
Probable cause: objective circumstances or evidence that a crime has been committed or will be committed
Fifth Amendment: criminal process protections
Sixth Amendment: due process liberties such as criminal trial rights
Eighth Amendment: protection from cruel and unusual punishments
Exclusionary rule: courts are supposed to not allow evidence seized to be used against a criminal defendant at trial.
USA Patriot ACT (2001): Allow federal law enforcement to conduct more warrantless searches to prevent acts of terrorism.
Right to Privacy: Protection of a woman’s right to access birth control and abortion procedures.
Penumbra: legal zone that infers a right to privacy in parts of the Bill of rights
Social Movement: Collective demands for policy adjustments
Voting Rights Act 1965: passed to enforce the 15th Amendment in states that restricted voting by coloured people.
Title IX: Congressional act that Prohibited any form of sex discrimination in any education program or activity.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Race based public school segregation violates the 14th Amendment’s equal protection clause.

Unit 4: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs Key Vocabulary

Individualism: an element of American political culture about an expectation of government protecting individual liberties along with an expectation that individuals attempt to work to live independent from reliance on government support
Equality of Opportunity: an element of American political culture about a government allowing for individual success regardless of one’s demographic background
Rule of law: an element of democratic political culture about a government constantly and fairly applying laws to both the powerful and to those opposing governing parties
Free enterprise: an element of American political culture about a government allowing capitalistic economic system that prefers private choices opposed to governmental planned ones
Limited government: an element of American political culture about a government not being able to dictate all aspects of an individual’s life
Political socialization: the process of an individual developing political beliefs about ideo, party affiliation with others
Demographics: personal background traits such as gender, race, religion, class that shape peoples political beliefs
Political efficacy: an individual’s belief that their political participation can help shape governmental policies
Scientific opinion polling: the measurement of public opinion through surveys conducted with random samples of a particular universe of possible repodents.
** Exit Poll** - survey to measure the opinions of voters leaving the ballot box

Unit 5: Political Participation Key Vocabulary

Political participation: ways citizens can attempt to shape government policy.
*15th amendment: Former male slaves have the right to vote.
** Rational choice voting**: theory that explains voting behavior as an economic action in which voters make observations of their own environment and vote accordingly for their best interests
Retrospective voting: Voters provide ballots to reward and punish the past political behaviours of others in government.
Prospective voting: voters cast ballots in anticipation of future political behaviour
Party voting: the theory that explains that voter votes best in their own political party.

Essential Supreme Court Cases

Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Upheld federal supremacy.
US v. Lopez (1995): Limits Congress’ commerce clause power.
Baker v. Carr (1961): “One man, one vote” principle.
Reno v. Shaw (1993): SCOTUS held that majority-minority districts created under the Voting Rights Act of 1965 could be constitutionally challenged if race was the only factor used in creating the district
McDonald v. Chicago (2010): The Second Amendment’s right to bear arms to state and local governments through the 14th Amendment’s due process clause.
**Brown v Board of Education

Essential Supreme Court Cases

Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review, the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional. This case arose from a dispute over a judicial appointment and solidified the Court's role in interpreting the Constitution.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Upheld federal supremacy and the implied powers of Congress under the Necessary and Proper Clause. The case involved Maryland's attempt to tax the national bank, which the Court ruled unconstitutional.
US v. Lopez (1995): Placed limits on Congress’ power under the Commerce Clause. The Court ruled that the Gun-Free School Zones Act, which banned the possession of firearms in school zones, was unconstitutional because it did not substantially affect interstate commerce.
Baker v. Carr (1961): Established the principle of "one person, one vote," holding that legislative districts must be roughly equal in population. This case opened the door to federal court review of redistricting issues.
Reno v. Shaw (1993): Addressed the issue of majority-minority districts, ruling that districts created where race was the predominant factor could be challenged under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.
McDonald v. Chicago (2010): Incorporated the Second Amendment right to bear arms to state and local governments through the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause, allowing individuals to keep firearms for self-defense.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Declared state-sponsored segregation in public schools unconstitutional, violating the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. This landmark case overturned the “separate but equal”